%ISOlat1; %ISOtech; %ISOnum; %ISOdia; %ISOgrk1; %ISOpub; %ISOlat2; ]> Foreword See notes on the electronic edition The old saw that you can't judge a book by its cover is not precisely true. Actually, it cannot be applied to the earliest known form of the book, the Codex. Many surviving Codices possess bindings which are almost an integral part of the text. Their fundamental designs and the frequent sumptuous embellishment of the covers with gold and silver mounts encrusted with jewels or semiprecious gems or enamels offer compelling insight into the contents of the books they protect. These magnificent survivors of many centuries of use and adoration are among the great bibliophilic treasures of those fortunate libraries and museums who possess them. It is a matter of great regret that in many instances the bindings have been stripped, stolen, or otherwise removed from the texts they encased, for such bindings frequently offer valid evidence of their places of execution. What would we not give to know what kind of binding originally was placed on the noble Book of Kells, since it might well have provided the missing clues to the earliest history and provenance of this great manuscript of the Gospels. In many instances certain book covers artistically admired for their craftsmanship in the use of ivory, silver, and, at a later date, leather remain as single objects, and we can only speculate about the texts they encased. We owe a great debt to the Egyptian Christians, the Copts, who most probably were the first to use leather as covers for their scriptural texts. Once introduced it became the most common material used for bookbinding throughout Europe; it was not supplanted essentially until the nineteenth century when cloth bindings became common. Velvet had, of course, been used much earlier for embroidered bindings. Early on binding developed as a craft, and it became a highly skilled craft, one which has endured to this day. Over the years as books proliferated the need for bookbinding increased; the invention of printing provided a new impetus to the craft and probably revolutionized it. The earliest printed books were issued by their printers in unbound sheets; those who purchased them arranged to have them bound according to their individual requirements. That is one of the reasons why the study and investigation of fifteenth‐century bindings can reveal such interesting details about the early history of these original covers. We know, for example, that a number of copies of Johann Gutenberg's famous Bible of 1455 were bound not at Mainz, where this Bible was printed, but at Erfurt; and we also know that one of the binders in that community was named Johannes Fogel, since one of the blind stamps used to embellish the leather stretched over the original wooden boards contained his own name. Other bindings of a slightly later period carry on their leather covers a stamp which is a recognizable portrait of an early printer, Johann de Westphalia; another group reveals the arms of the city of Cologne, providing valid evidence of the place of binding. Indeed, the study of the basic designs of early bindings and the blind stamps used to decorate them has become the object of intensive bibliographic research. The late Ernst Kyriss devoted many years of productive scholarship to documenting the sources of innumerable early German bindings carrying blind stamps. For the early years of the sixteenth century, Konrad Haebler performed a similar service by categorizing and classifying the numerous rolls used on German bindings of that period. The bindings of other countries have also received careful attention, but much more work remains to be done. It is not surprising to find early German books in contemporary Italian bindings, and early Italian printed books in German or French bindings, indicating that the book trade was quite mobile. Stylistically, it is often possible to identify early and also later bindings by their country and even their city of origin. It is also true that rich and affluent bibliophiles such as Matthias Corvinus (King of Hungary), the King of Naples, and later Jean Grolier of Lyons and Paris, one of the greatest of all bibliophiles, took great pains to have their libraries appropriately and sumptuously bound. Books from these and other great collections are easily recognized and highly prized by their present‐day owners. England and, especially, France have produced countless royal bindings of extraordinary interest and variety. The art of fine bookbinding is well represented in France, where it continues to flourish. One must not lose sight of the lacquered bindings from Islam (a separate chapter in themselves), the embroidered covers executed by English needleworkers in the seventeenth century, or the beautiful silk bindings found on Chinese and Japanese books of all periods. There is infinite variety to be found in the study of this historic craft. There is also much to be said about early binding in this country and much more to be written. Although in its earliest period it was frankly derivative and with certain exceptions can hardly be regarded as distinguished, there were attempts at refinement. There has been a tremendous interest in the history of bookbinding in this country in recent years, stimulated in part by the late Dorothy Miner's monumental exhibition of bindings, principally from American collections, which was handsomely mounted at the Baltimore Museum of Art in 1957. Over seven hundred exceptional bindings, covering more than fourteen centuries, were on display. It was a delight for all those who shared in it or saw it, and its impact is still being felt today. Another stimulant to this heightening of interest is the emphasis that has been placed recently on the preservation and restoration of all aspects of the book, including papyrus, vellum, and paper. Modern scientific approaches have introduced a new vocabulary, much of which is not readily comprehended by those whose interests are most intimately concerned with the books of all ages. The purpose of a foreword is to inform the reader, if he cares to peruse it, about the contents of the text it introduces. The text of the present book is not a history of bookbinding—although there is a great deal of history about the craft contained herein, and it also discusses the materials used, the notable binders whose names illuminate it, and other useful information. It is rather an up‐to‐date dictionary. The succinct definitions and explanations, as well as the biographical vignettes, contained in this dictionary will be a boon to those who seek this kind of information. Those concerned, whether they are practicing binders, technicians, rare book librarians, collectors, or simply laymen, will find this a welcome source of answers to their questions. Not the least of these is the one frequently asked of me during my long service in the Library of Congress as Chief of the Rare Book Division. How can I best treat the leather bindings in my personal library ? But this is only one of the thousands of questions to which this dictionary provides the ready answers. The text speaks accurately and helpfully to all those who will seek it out and profit from the immense amount of information it presents in a lucid and comprehensible form.

FREDERICK R. GOFF Honorary Consultant in Early Printed Books Library of Congress Preface Although numerous books, both theoretical and practical, have been published on the subject of bookbinding and the conservation of archival materials, there would seem to be a need for one that approaches the subject by examining the meaning and usage of the many terms, expressions, and names pertaining to the various subjects. The nomenclature of bookbinding, its offshoots and more recent progeny, has not, at least insofar as the present writers have been able to determine, been presented in a comprehensive dictionary, although various aspects of the book and its production have been explored in dictionary form, sometimes superlatively, as in the American Paper and Pulp Association's Dictionary of Paper and John Carter's A B C for Book Collectors. The authors of this volume hope that it will help fill a considerable gap in the literature of conservation, one that has for some time been all too evident. Although this dictionary is intended first and foremost for those actively involved in one or more aspects of the overall field of bookbinding and book conservation, including bookbinders, conservators of library and archival materials, and the like, it is perhaps no less intended for those working in related fields, such as bibliography and librarianship, where the many terms and expressions relating to the overall field may be less familiar and even more confusing. The compilers accept full responsibility for the selection of terms for inclusion, as well as for the even more difficult task of rejection. The definitions themselves, although herein the responsibility of the same persons, were, whenever possible, drawn from the most authoritative sources available (as indicated by the number in parentheses at the end of a definition, which refers to the Sources and Bibliography section) and supplemented by the experience of the authors. Even though the bibliography and sources cited represent but a relatively small segment of the extensive corpus of literature in the field of conservation, we believe they provide a reasonably good sampling and may benefit the reader by offering an authoritative source for the terms and sometimes providing a source for further investigation. Definitions that do not cite a source are entirely the responsibility of the authors. Where a term has more than one definition, each is numbered and arranged in its descending order of significance in relation to bookbinding. The arrangement of the dictionary is letter‐by‐letter, rather than word‐by‐word, which means that, while the placement of terms such as C‐stage, or m.m. system, etc., will be within the body of the respective letters of the alphabet, and not at the beginning, there should be no problem with locating hyphenated or one‐ or two‐word structures, such as springback, or the more accepted spring‐back, as long as the spelling of the term is known. The same is true of fore edge (correct), as opposed to foreedge (sometimes used but awkward). (Foredge would be incorrect.) Fore edge, it should be noted, is only hyphenated when used as a modifier, e.g., fore‐edge painting. The arrangement of the dictionary, then, is: head headband headbanding headbolt head box headcap headed outline tool head trim The most common (sometimes simply the most commonly encountered) form or spelling of a term has been used, e.g., myrabolans, not myrabalans, gauffered edges, not gauffred, gaufré, or goffered, with the variations in spelling being included with the bold‐faced heading. Where a term is also called by another name the synonym is given at the end of the definition, e.g.: abaca. Also called "manila hemp." adhesive binding. Also called "perfect binding" or "unsewn binding." See references have been used extensively, as have see also references, which refer the reader to other terms closely, or sometimes only indirectly, related to the term being discussed. See also references and cross references to the terms defined in this dictionary which are cited within the definition itself are set in small capitals, e.g.: forel. A grade of PARCHMENT made from split sheepskin and dressed in imitation of VELLUM. There is always the problem of the extent to which one wishes to go in defining any one term. While there may be relatively little one can say, or would want to say, about a material such as Armenian bole, or a procedure such as lengthwise lettering, one could offer quite a lengthy discourse on the finer considerations of break or the molecular structure of glue. But this is a dictionary, not an encyclopedia, a guide to the vocabulary of a field, not a compendium on a specific subject. A number of persons, both near and far, have generously contributed both their time and expertise in evaluating and criticizing this work. George Kelly, Research Scientist, Research and Testing Office of the Library's Preservation Office, read and commented on the chemical terms. Harold Tribolet, retired, formerly Manager, Graphic Conservation Department, R. R. Donnelly & Sons, Chicago, Illinois, read and offered comments on an earlier version of the work. Bernard Middleton, of London, bookbinder and historian of bookbinding and its related subjects, read and offered extensive comments on the manuscript, especially those terms relating to hand bookbinding and bookbinding history. John Chalmers, bibliophile and former Librarian of the Washington Cathedral Library, Mount Saint Alban, Washington, D.C., read the final version and wrote many pages of comments and criticism. Betty Roberts read and reread several manuscripts and proofread still others. Margaret Schaffer typed the final manuscript and also read the galleys and page proof. Our deep and heartfelt thanks to all.
a
"The front or recto side of a leaf of a book. It is called "a" when the leaves rather than the pages are numbered. The back or verso side is referred to as b." See also: FOLIATION (2).
aa pattern
The code designation for a book cloth embossed with a watered silk pattern over the T PATTERN, producing a MOIRÉ EFFECT. See also: MOIRÉ BOOK CLOTH.
abaca
A type of plantain or banana (Musa textilis), native to the Philippine Islands. The outer sheaths of its leaf stems yield a fiber used extensively in the manufacture of certain papers, e.g., saturating papers, where great strength is required. The fibers range in length from 3 to 12 mm, the average being 6 mm, and vary in thickness from 0.016 to 0.032 mm, averaging 0.024 mm. They taper very gradually towards the ends; the central canal is large, and the fine cross-hatchings are numerous. Also called "Manila hemp." (17, 323)
aberrant copy
A copy of a book that has unmistakable binding and/or printing errors and not merely simple defects. (156)
abhesive
A material having the capability of resisting ADHESION. Surfaces are coated with abhesive substances to reduce sticking, heat sealing, and the like. Silicone paper is an example of an abhesive material. (222)
abrasion
The rubbing or wearing away of a material due to contact with another material. Some very large books, manuscripts, etc., may be damaged by abrasion because of the large surface area of the leaves rubbing over one another (particularly when the publication is being opened or closed), as may the leather coverings of books when they are removed from the shelves. Dust also, is a significant cause of abrasion of book papers and covers.
abrasion resistance
The ability of materials, such as paper, board, cloth, leather, etc., to withstand the abrading action of the same or another material, e.g., other paper, dust, a book shelf, etc. The property is usually measured in terms of rate of loss of material by weight when abraded under specified conditions and length of time. See also: RESISTANCE TO WEAR. (17, 58, 72)
abrasives
Substances used to wear down or clean other substances. Abrasives may occur naturally (e.g., diamond, corundum, pumice, etc.), or be manufactured (e.g., silicon carbide, fused alumina, metallic abrasives, and the like). The hardness of an abrasive is measured by MOHS' SCALE, which is arbitrary. For numerous grinding and buffering purposes, the graded grains of abrasive are bonded together in a vitreous rubber or metallic matrix to produce grinding wheels; for hand use, the grains are bonded to paper or cloth by means of a suitable adhesive.
absolute humidity
The actual quantity of water vapor present in a given volume of air. Absolute humidity is expressed either in grams per cubic meter, or in grams per cubic foot. See also: HUMIDITY; RELATIVE HUMIDITY.
absorbency
The degree of receptivity of a material to liquids, either in liquid or gaseous form. Measures of absorbency include: 1) the time a material requires to absorb a specific volume of liquid; 2) the rate of rise of a liquid along a vertical strip of a material, the end of which is immersed in the liquid; 3) the total area of a specimen wetted by the liquid within a specified time period; and 4) the total absorptive capacity of a material expressed as the quantity of liquid absorbed by a completely saturated specimen. Absorbency is of importance because paper, for example, generally has the ability to absorb or give up moisture depending upon the wetness, i.e., RELATIVE HUMIDITY, of the atmosphere around it, and, because the effect is not uniform in all directions. Because of the latter, the MACHINE DIRECTION of the paper used in producing books becomes an important factor in both printing and bookbinding. See also: COCKLE (1); WARPING. (17, 72, 144)
absorbent papers
A group of soft, unsized papers used to soak up water and other liquids. Although not sized, the papers may be treated with synthetic resins as a method of enhancing their wet strength. Absorbent papers include blotting papers, as well as the base papers used in the manufacture of IMITATION LEATHER, VEGETABLE PARCHMENT PAPER, WET-STRENGTH PAPER, and the like. (17, 290, 324)
absorption
A term used in the adhesive industry to indicate the capillary or cellular attraction of a surface to draw off a liquid adhesive into the substrate.
acacia
A genus of woody plants of the family Leguminosae. The sap and pods of certain species, notable Acacia arabica and A. senegal, are used in the manufacture of GUM ARABIC. Acacia mimoa, A. mollisima and A. catechu (also called Borneo cutch) are also used in the tanning of leather. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (130, 175)
acacia gum
See: GUM ARABIC.
acanthus
The name given a leaf of the acanthus plant (Acanthus spinosus) introduced as ornamentation in ancient Greek architecture. It has been applied in various modified forms in succeeding styles of architecture. In bookbinding, the acanthus ornamentation is a typical impression of the finishing tool cut to represent two such leaves pointing in different directions. The acanthus decoration was also used as a decorative motif by illuminators of manuscripts, especially Carolingian artists of the 9th century. (250)
accelerated aging test
A procedure which is designed to indicate in a relatively short period of time what will happen to materials, such as paper, ink, etc., over a period of years in storage. It commonly involves heating the specimen in an oven under specified controlled conditions. Under ideal circumstances, the material is exposed to an environment which increases the rate of its degradation without changing its nature. It is generally accepted, for example, that heating paper for three days in an oven at 100° C is equivalent in its effect to approximately 25 years under normal library storage conditions. Although sound in theory, accelerated aging tests are, at this time, of limited usefulness. The reason is that conditions of storage, which vary widely, have a considerable influence on the degree of permanence; also, it is difficult to verify empirically the accuracy of such tests except by experiments conducted over a number of years. Such tests have actually been made, although to a limited extent. It is known, for example, that the strength of paper tends to diminish in storage, and experiments have indicated that the FOLDING ENDURANCE declines to a significantly greater extent than such other properties as tensile, or tearing, strength; consequently, folding endurance tests conducted subsequent to accelerated aging may well provide a good indication of a general loss of strength. In addition, as to the rate of deterioration, the effect of heat is very much like that of natural aging under average conditions; therefore, it is probably reasonable to assume that heat affords a practical means of accomplishing accelerated aging. (18, 62, 144)
accordion fold
See: CONCERTINA FOLD.
accordion-pleated fold
See notes on the electronic edition A method of folding endpapers so that the pleat provides a hinge at the inner joint of the cover. The pleat also provides for expansion to allow the covers to swing open freely and not exert strain on the first and last leaves of the book. In certain cases, however, it can also create a sharp, knife-like fold which, if wide enough, may cause a brittle leaf to bend sharply and crack at that point. (81)
account book
See: BLANKBOOK.
account-book binding
See: BLANKBOOK BINDING.
account-book paper
See: LEDGER PAPER.
acetate
The salt or ester of ACETIC ACID. See also: CALCIUM ACETATE, CELLULOSE ACETATE, POLYVINYL ACETATE.
acetate envelopes
Envelopes, usually made of transparent cellulose acetate. used for the temporary protection of documents, letters, prints, photographs, maps, etc. They are superior to paper envelopes in that they substantially reduce the danger of acid transfer. Their use, however, is declining in favor of polyester envelopes. See also: CELLULOSE ACETATE; POLYESTER FIBERS.
acetate ink
An ink with special adhering qualities intended for drawing or printing on such materials as films and acetates.
acetic acid
A volatile, colorless acid (CH3MCOOH), prepared by the oxidation of acetaldehyde, by oxidation of ethyl alcohol, or by the distillation of wood. It is used extensively in the manufacture of CELLULOSE ACETATE, and has been used for washing leather bindings to remove grease prior to tooling. Being a relatively weak organic acid, as well as volatile, it is not considered to be particularly harmful to paper or leather, and is to be preferred to ordinary vinegar in preparing leather or book edges for tooling or gilding, as vinegar is likely to contain traces of sulfuric acid. (198)
acetic ether
See: ETHYL ACETATE.
acetone
A colorless, volatile, flammable ketone (CH3COCH3), having a pleasing odor, that occurs in pyroligneous acid and can be prepared by dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol, by bacterial fermentation of corn mash, and by other means. It is miscible with water, alcohol and ether. Acetone is effective as a solvent in removing pressure sensitive tape from paper because it dissolves not only the adhesive but (in some cases) the tape itself. Its use is limited, however, because of its tendency to dissolve ink, and its highly flammable nature. In leather manufacture, it is used as a solvent for finishes. It is also used to prepare other solvents, such as methyl isobutyl ketone and mesityl alcohol, and as a solvent for paints, varnishes, lacquers, and cellulose acetate. Acetone decomposes photochemically to produce ethane, carbon monoxide and small amounts of diacetyl and methane. (173, 306)
acid
A substance capable of forming hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. The majority of inorganic acids may be regarded as compounds of an acidic oxide and water; where the oxide involved is that of a metal, it may exhibit amphoteric characteristics, i.e., act sometimes as an acid and sometimes as a base, depending upon the other materials present. Typical organic acids contain the COOH group, but other acid groupings, e.g., the sulfonic—SO3H, give acidic properties to organic compounds. Aqueous solutions of acids have a sharp taste, turn litmus red, liberate CO2, form a metallic carbonate, and evolve hydrogen in reaction with certain metals, e.g., iron. The 'strength' of an acid is measured by the value of its dissociation constant, a strong acid such as hydrochloric being substantially fully ionized in solution, and a weak acid such as formic being predominantly unionized. Acids, and particularly the inorganic acids (because of their corrosiveness and low volatility), are harmful to paper and bookbinding materials. Their presence weakens the holding power of the individual links of the cellulose chains of paper, causing brittleness; results in corrosive effects in some inks; and weakens the fibers of leather. The source of acids in archival materials may be intrinsic or extrinsic. They may be present in the materials used in the manufacture of paper, adhesives, leather, etc., and may be left in intentionally, e.g., alum-rosin sizing; they may be introduced during manufacture and not sufficiently removed, e g., acids used in clearing and/or dyeing leather; or they may gain access during storage, e.g., sulfuric acid in paper or leather, resulting from the atmospheric pollutant, sulfur dioxide (SO2). See also: ACID GASES. (72, 195, 198, 306)
acid dyes
A very large class of dyes containing acidic groups, such as the sodium salts of sulfonic acids or phenolic groups. They are more soluble and have less tinctorial value than BASIC DYES but they also have greater light fastness. See: FAST COLORS. They do not form lakes with tannin. Acid dyes are used in dyeing leather, paper, etc., and their particular value lies in their ability to produce brighter, more uniform colors. They are normally applied from an acid dye liquor (acetic, formic, or sulfuric acid); however, unless applied from a neutral or only slightly acid dyebath, i.e., pH of 6.0 to 7.0, their use is likely to result in acid degradation of the material dyed. See also: FUGITIVE COLORS; LAKE. (17, 67, 72, 363)
acid-free leather
Ostensibly, leather manufactured without the use of acids, but interpreted by most producers to mean leather from which as much acid as possible has been removed. The removal of acid used in producing leather is a costly and time-consuming process, and calls for repeated washing of the stock. Tanning agents which contain a relatively high amount of salts of weak acids, of which MYRABOLANS is one, are said to protect leather against acids used in manufacture or those absorbed from the atmosphere. (175, 306)
acid-free paper
In principle, papers which contain no free acid and have a pH value of 7.0 or greater. In practice, papermakers consider a paper having a pH value of 6.0 or greater to be acid free. Such papers may be produced from cotton fibers, rags, esparto, jute, chemical wood pulps, or virtually any other fiber, with special precautions being taken during manufacture to eliminate any active acid that might be present in the paper pulp. However free of acid the paper may be immediately after manufacture, the presence of residual chlorine from bleaching operations, aluminum sulfate (alum) from sizing, or sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere, may lead to the formation of hydrochloric or sulfuric acid unless the paper has been buffered with a substance capable of neutralizing acids. See also: ALKALINE RESERVE. (144, 198)
acid gases
Gases which may form destructive acids in paper, board, leather, and other book materials. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), present in the air as a pollutant, is one such gas; it can form highly destructive sulfuric acid (H2SO4), either by oxidizing to form sulfur trioxide (SO3), which in the presence of water vapor, is transformed into H2SO4, or by combining directly with water vapor to form sulfurous acid (H2SO), which, while a weak acid itself, reacts with oxygen to form H2SO4. It is suspected that the rate of conversion is increased by the presence in the paper of metallic catalysts, such as iron or copper, which may enter the paper during manufacture, but as yet there is no proof of this. (193, 265)
acidity
A condition or state in which the concentration of hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution exceeds that of hydroxyl ions. Acidity is probably the most important single factor affecting the permanence of archival materials. Acidity alone, however, does not necessarily connote destructiveness; the nature of the acid, i.e., the strength of its acidic properties, is of more importance than its quantity; e.g., a relatively small amount of sulfuric acid may have a greater destructive effect than a larger quantity of lactic acid. Because of this, both pH value and titration are necessary to achieve adequate evaluation of the potentially destructive effect of an acid. See also: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION. (144)
acid migration
The transfer of acid from a material containing acid to one containing less or no acid. This may occur either when the two materials are in contact with each other, or by vapor transfer from one material to nearby materials not actually in contact with it. Boards, endpapers, and protective tissues, as well as the paper covers of books and pamphlets, may contain acid and transfer it to otherwise low-acid or acid-free paper of the text. Also called "acid transfer." See also: BARRIER SHEET.
acid size
A ROSIN SIZE that contains an appreciable part of unsaponified but emulsified free rosin. If, when diluted, the rosin size produces a milky emulsion, it is then known as "white size."
acid transfer
See: ACID MIGRATION.
acid wash
A solution consisting of hydrochloric acid diluted in water. At one time it was used to clean grease and other foreign material from the edges of books prior to gilding. It was usually applied after the initial scraping and sanding, and before the final light sanding.
acme seal
The now obsolete name given a SEALSKIN, dyed and having a plain, dull finish and a natural grain.
acrylic resin
acrylic coating acrylic plastic
A thermoplastic resin prepared by polymerizing acrylic acid (C3H4O2) or methacrylic acid (C4H6O2), or a derivative of either, especially an ester, e.g., methyl methacrylate. One such acrylic resin, polymethyl acrylate, which is a tough rubbery material, is used, usually as manufactured in emulsion form, for textile and leather finishes, lacquers, and pressure sensitive adhesives, and as a mixture with clay to coat papers used in high gloss printing. (42, 364)
additives
1. Substances added in small proportions to products to improve their performance, or to enhance their attractiveness or value. Additives are also used to prevent bacterial action, drying, staling, as well as to inhibit corrosion, oxidation, decomposition, etc. 2. All of the nonfibrous raw materials used in making paper. They may be added at any point during the papermaking process or after the paper has been manufactured. Treatment of the entire sheet (internal treatment) entails mixing the additives with the paper pulp, in which case they are known as wet-end additives. If only the surface of the sheet is to be treated, the additives are applied directly to the surface of the paper, and are known as external additives. Paper additives are used to color and size paper, control pH, improve physical properties, and increase wet strength. They are also used as defoamers, dispersants, plasticizers, preservatives, retention aids, and the like. (58, 98)
adherend
A material that is held to another material by means of an ADHESIVE.
adhesion
A term indicating that two surfaces are held together by interfacial forces, which may consist of valence forces (chemical adhesion), interlocking action (mechanical adhesion), VAN DER WAALS FORCES, or combinations thereof. (309)
adhesive
A general term for any of several substances capable of bonding materials to each other by chemical or mechanical action, or both, and which may be activated by water, non-aqueous solvents, pressure, heat, cold, or other means. Adhesives may be classified by temperature (hot-, cold-, intermediate-, room-temperature setting, etc.); by type of solvent (water, alcohol, etc.); by type of application (brush, roller, spray, etc.); or by origin (animal, vegetable, or synthetic). They may be further classified as natural or synthetic (resin). The natural adhesives are primarily of animal or vegetable origin (sodium silicate (water glass) being virtually the only inorganic natural product important as an adhesive) and include animal glue, casein, blood albumen (which is unimportant as an adhesive in archival work), and vegetable adhesives. The synthetic resin adhesives include the thermoplastic resins, the thermosetting resins, and the elastomeric adhesives. The adhesives used in archival work must exhibit three properties: 1) they must wet the surfaces to be joined but not so much as to cause the adhered materials to cockle; 2) they must have sufficient flexibility so as not to crack when the joint is flexed; and 3) they must be strong but not as strong as the materials they bond, so that stress to the point of failure of the joint will not damage the archival material but will result only in the failure of the adhesive. See also: ALBUMEN; CASEIN; CEMENT (2); COLD GLUE; DEXTRIN; FISH GLUE; FLEXIBLE GLUE; GLAIR; GLUCOSE-GLYCOL PASTE; GLUE; HARD GLUE; HOT-MELT ADHESIVE; ISINGLASS; MICROENCAPSULATED ADHESIVE; MUCILAGE; PADDING COMPOUND; PASTE; POLYVINYL ACETATE; RABBIT SKIN GLUE; RESINOUS ADHESIVES; RICE GLUE; RUBBER ADHESIVES; VEGETABLE GLUE; WOOD PASTE. (48, 89, 102, 149, 186, 198, 222, 309)
adhesive binding
A method of securing loose leaves into a solid text block by means of an adhesive rather than by means of sewing, stitching, etc. In general, there are four techniques of adhesive binding in use today: 1) PADDING (2); 2) manual adhesive binding, which is still practiced by hand binders and some library binders; 3) semiautomatic adhesive binding, which is the usual method in library binderies and some paperback edition binderies; and 4) fully automatic adhesive binding, which is the usual method in edition binding. Two basic methods are used to secure the leaves in adhesive binding: 1) application of the adhesive to the edges of the collected and clamped leaves, without fanning, in which case there is little if any penetration of adhesive between the sheets; and 2) fanning the clamped leaves, either in one direction or both (in the latter case 180°), so that the adhesive is applied a slight distance onto the leaves, thus forming a more secure bond. A HOT-MELT ADHESIVE is usually employed in the first method, whereas a cold RESINOUS ADHESIVE, e.g., POLYVINYL ACETATE, is typical in the latter method. It is not unusual, however, to use a combination of the two adhesives. The resinous adhesives are generally used alone, but hot melts may be used in either a one-shot operation (hot melt alone), or in a two-shot application (a primer of polyvinyl adhesive, followed by the hot melt, in which case the leaves are usually fanned upon application of the cold adhesive). Adhesive binding generally results in a book that opens easily and lies flat. It is also a relatively economical form of binding, especially when long runs of the same edition are being bound. The method lends itself well to the mass production of low-priced paperbacks, catalogs, telephone directories, and the like. It is also finding greater use in library binding for books that are not in sections and have relatively narrow margins, as well as for rebinding books printed on paper that is deteriorating. Adhesive binding, however, is not a satisfactory method of binding coated and similar papers. Adhesive binding, in one form or another, is not a new concept; in fact, it dates back to the 1830s when William Hancock invented the so-called CAOUTCHOUC BINDING in England. Overall, however, even though the method is very practical for books that are to receive heavy use over a relatively short period, (e.g., telephone directories), adhesive binding is generally considered to be inferior to the sewn binding and its permanence has yet to be demonstrated. Also called "perfect binding." or "unsewn binding. See also: ADHESIVE BINDING MACHINE; ONE-SHOT METHOD; TWO-SHOT METHOD. (15, 16, 81, 89, 294, 320)
adhesive binding machine
A machine that applies an adhesive, and sometimes a cloth lining, to the edges of the leaves or sections of a book. Adhesive binding machines may be classified as: 1) intermittent, with all operations being performed while the book is stopped; and 2) continuous, with all operations being performed while the book is in motion. In addition, they may be classified as: 1) inline, with the books being carried in one direction at a constant elevation; 2) rotary or circular, with books being carried in a circular path; and 3) oval, with books being carried over an extended oval path. There are variations within all of these categories. Adhesive binding machines used in library binderies are generally in-line machines which operate intermittently or continuously, with the books being inserted and removed from the machine by hand. Adhesive binding machines date back to the latter part of the 19th century, but their greatest period of development was following World War II. (89, 320)
adhesive dope
A chemical solvent used as a wash for the turn-in areas of imitation-leather book cloths and other impervious materials to facilitate adhesion of the board papers. It has very limited use today.
adhesive glassine tape
A gummed glassine paper, generally of BASIS WEIGHT of 25 pounds (24 X 36 – 500). It is sometimes used in mending the leaves of books, as well as for hinges, for which purposes it is supplied in rolls of narrow width. Its use for the repair of archival materials is not recommended, as it has a tendency to stain the paper and is difficult to remove. See also: HEAT-SET TISSUE. (17)
adhesive paper
A paper coated with a water-activated, heat-activated, or pressure-activated adhesive. See: GUMMED PAPER; HEAT-SET TISSUE; PRESSURE-SENSITIVE TAPE; SE-LIN LABELING SYSTEM.
adjusted
A MARBLING SIZE that has been put into proper condition to receive the colors by the addition of OX-GALL, so that when the colors are dropped on they will spread evenly. The correct amount of gall will cause a drop of marbling color to expand to its maximum without thinning. See also: MARBLING. (335)
advance sheets
1. A copy of a book, in sheets or gatherings, for preliminary notices, simultaneous publication in two or more places, or for early cataloging. Advance sheets for review or early cataloging are usually in unbound gatherings. 2. Generally, sheets of a publication e.g., some serial publications or other documents, printed separately for use before they are issued collectively. In a stricter sense these are more appropriately called "preprints." (69, 140)
advertisements bound-in
A statement to the effect that advertisements have been included in the binding of a volume bound from parts or issues, or in the rebinding of a volume, usually a serial publication. Some libraries instruct the binder to remove all advertisements not containing subject matter (on either side of the leaf), or those that are paginated separately. This is done to save shelf space; it is questionable, however, whether sufficient space is saved to warrant the effort. In addition, the presence of advertisements can be of value to scholars and is of value to collectors.
aerosol
A dispersion in which a material is dissolved or suspended in a liquid which volatilizes to produce a fine spray when pressure is released. The spray carries the active material. Tn archival work, aerosols are used for dispersing deacidification solutions; in this case the propellant, which must be inert and nonflammable, is frequently a chlorofluorocarbon, e.g., freon 12, dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2).
against the grain
Paper which has been folded at right angles to the direction in which the fibers tend to lie, i.e., the MACHINE DIRECTION. A well-produced book always has the grain or machine direction running from head to tail so that the back or binding fold of the paper is not against the grain. Correct grain direction means that the leaves of the book will be more inclined to lie flat when the book is open. The term applies specifically to machine-made paper, as HANDMADE PAPER has no definite grain direction.
agalite
A natural fibrous form of talc, gray in color and consisting principally of hydrated magnesium silicate. It gives paper a greasy or soapy feel. and enables it to take a high finish. It is little used today. (62)
agar
agar-agar
The polysaccharides agarose and agropectin, occurring as cell-wall constituents of red marine algae (genera Gelidium, Gracilaria, etc.), from which it is extracted by hot water. It is available as a dry powder, flakes, or strips. Agar is the metallic (usually calcium) salt of a sulfuric acid ester of a complex polysaccharide of gelactose, but its exact structure is not understood. It dissolves in hot water and, upon cooling, sets to a jelly at concentrations as low as 0.5%. It is used as a gelling and stabilizing agent, as a misciformis sizing for silk, and as an adhesive emulsifying agent. (72)
agate
agate burnisher
A natural stone, consisting of a form of silica, similar to chalcedony, with colored bands of purple or brown, shaped and polished for use as a burnishing tool, particularly in edge gilding. See also: BURNISHER (2).
agatine
A marble pattern consisting of black in large spots, green in rivers, scarlet in sprinkles, and blue in small spots. Various designs are made from this combination of colors. (152) "
"agenda" format
A narrow book format, i.e., one where the height of the book is disproportionately greater than its width, to the extent of 3 :1 or greater, as compared with the usual ratio of 2:1 or 3:2. The "agenda" format proportions are similar to those of the consular diptych. The diptych was often adapted in the middle ages for use as covers of ceremonial lists and processional music, which had to be written in a format to conform with these constrictions; the "agenda" possibly stems from that format. (347)
aggressive tack
See: DRY TACK.
aging
A general term describing the natural degradation of paper, adhesives, leather, and other archival materials, while in storage. With some textiles, aging denotes oxidation by exposure to air. Aging is greatly influenced by the environment in which the materials are stored. See also: ACCELERATED AGING TEST; ENVIRONMENT; PERMANENT MATERIALS; PERMANENT PAPER; YELLOWING.
air-dried
Handmade- and the better machine-made papers dried in a current of air, either at normal or elevated temperatures, as distinguished from paper which is dried by contact with heated rolls. This method of drying reduces stresses, including DRIED-IN STRAIN, which are imposed on paper while drying, because the sheet is allowed to dry, and therefore contract, at a slower rate. See also: ANISOTROPIC BEHAVIOR. (98)
air dry
A condition usually associated with paper (and paper pulp) and leather. Paper is said to be air dry when its moisture content (usually 3 to 9%) is in equilibrium with the atmospheric conditions to which it is exposed. Leather is considered to be air dry when its moisture content is approximately 14% of the weight of the leather. Their different moisture contents in the air dry state makes it difficult to regulate the conditions of storage of a leather bound book. (17, 363)
airmail paper
A lightweight paper made for printing publications such as newspapers that are to be sent by airmail. It usually contains fillers to improve opacity, and is generally made in a basis weight of 10 pounds (17 X 22 – 500). Airmail paper is also used at times for guarding sections, mending tears, etc. For these purposes, it is preferable that the paper have a high rag content and an alkaline reserve of about 3%. (17, 58)
air permeability
The property which permits the passage of air when a difference in pressure exists across the boundaries of the material. Air permeability is one indication of a substance's porosity. See also: VAPOR PERMEABILITY. (17)
Aitken, Robert
1735-1802
One of a group of Scottish craftsmen in the bookbinding trade who immigrated to America in the years immediately before the Revolutionary War. Aitken appeared in Philadelphia in 1769, as a bookseller. He returned to Scotland that same year, apparently to learn bookbinding, because upon his return two years later he advertised himself as both bookbinder and bookseller. After 1773 he began to print books as well, and, in 1782, published the "Aitken Bible," the first complete Bible in English to be published on the North American continent. Aitken produced hundreds of bookbindings ranging in style from paper wrappers (both blue and marbled) to more or less richly gilt leather bindings. His work included blue paper boards, raised cords as well as flat spines, both plain and marbled endpapers, and bindings in full calf- or sheepskin with red title labels and gilt bands across the spines. Although Aitken produced scores of "plain" bindings, he was also capable of a binding style that was rich and luxurious in its gold tooling, especially for American bookbinding of that time. He was, in general, an imaginative and diverse bookbinder, although he was not known for his exactness and polish in finishing, nor was he particularly artistic. Because Aitkin was also an engraver, it has been suggested that he may have cut his own finishing tools, possible in imitation of Scottish designs. (45, 200, 347)
ajoure bindings
A style of bookbinding executed during the last third of the 15th century in Venice. Ajoure bindings were embellished with pierced or translucent patterns, in a manner referred to as "letting in the daylight." They generally featured openwork designs of foliage, angels' heads, satyr-masks, birds, baskets of fruits, etc. (156, 347)
à la cathédral
See: ARCHITECTURAL STYLE.
album
1. A book of envelopes or jackets, usually with a decorative cover and often with descriptive notes. It is intended to contain phonograph records. 2. A book of blank leaves designed to contain written records, clippings, postage stamps, and the like.
albumen
A class of protein found in egg whites. A mixture of egg white and vinegar (GLAIR) is used in book finishing; its purpose is to secure the gold leaf to the covering material prior to the impression of the heated tool. Albumen is also used as an adhesive in edge gilding.
album paper
A type of cover paper used for photograph albums. It is manufactured in gray and black in basis weights of 50 to 80 pounds (20 X 26 – 500). A basic requirement of this paper is that it not cockle when wetted with adhesives, while another essential requirement is that it contain no impurities which might alter or damage the photographs. (17, 324)
alchemic gold
A gold ink composition developed early in the 20th century as a substitute for imitation gold leaf. It was said to be "free from acid," as well as non-tarnishing. Its principal virtue seems to have been that it eliminated the necessity of sizing, laying-on, and rubbing off. (164, 264)
aldehyde tanning
Essentially a formaldehyde tannage. Several aldehydes react with hide protein to prevent putrefaction, but only FORMALDEHYDE has been used to any extent in the manufacture of leather. Formaldehyde is soluble in water, the resultant solution generally being known as FORMALIN. Aldehyde tanning is used principally in tanning white, washable leathers, usually sheep or lambskins, with the grain split or shaved off. Such leathers are seldom used in bookbinding. See also: ZIRCONIUM TANNING. (291, 306, 363)
alder (bark)
The bark of the common alder tree (Alnus glutinosa), used to some extent in small tanneries in southeastern Europe and Turkey for tanning leather. The bark contains 9 to 16% or more tannin, while the dried fruit yields about 16% tannin. The use of alder bark is not extensive—mainly because, when used alone, it imparts an objectionable reddish-brown color to the leather, and also tends to make the leather brittle. Other alder barks have also been used in tanning, including Alnus incana (in Europe and North America), A. nepalesis and A. nitida (in India), and A. cordata (in Italy). (175)
Aldine leaves
Small finishing stamps bearing a leaf and stem design. It was employed by the binders of Aldus Manutius, and also extensively by 19th century bookbinders on monastic bindings. See also: ALDINE (ITALIAN) STYLE. (334)
Aldine style
Italian style
A style of bookbinding originated by Aldus Manutius but not restricted to the books printed by Aldus or his family. Aldine bindings, which were produced during the late 15th and early 16th centuries, were characterized by the use of brown or red morocco; by solid-faced ornaments with no shading (which were similar to those used in printing the text); and by title or author in simple panels in the center of the upper cover, which could be read while the book lay on a shelf or table. Early examples of the Aldine style were tooled in blind with an outer frame and a center ornament. Possibly because of the Greek binders Aldus employed, as well as the fact that gold tooling (probably) originated in the Near East, Aldine tools display definite signs of Eastern origin. Early Italian bindings convey a consistent feeling of the shape and proportion of the book, which is demonstrated by: 1) the use of border and panel as schemes of design; 2) a remarkable sense of the value accorded ornamentation; 3) the areas of leather left undecorated; and 4) restraint in the decorative detail with the result that it was always in proper subordination to the overall effect of the embellishment. See PLATE IV. (124, 172, 280, 334)
algarobilla
The dry pods of a shrub native to Chile (Caesalpinia brevifolia), from which a tannin is extracted. As a tanning material, algarobilla somewhat resembles DIVI-DIVI; however, it is less prone to discolor the leather. It also produces a better weight and imparts greater firmness to leather. Algarobilla gives a light-colored tan liquor which before fermentation colors leather slightly to a light reddish yellow; however, after fermentation it produces a very bright color. It is usually blended with other tannins. Although algarobilla is one of the pyrogallol class of tannins, it penetrates the hide substance very rapidly, and has a fairly low natural pH and salts content and a relatively high acids content. The tannin content of the pods is generally in the range of 45-50%. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS, (175)
alkali
A substance which has the properties of a base, especially a hydroxide or carbonate of an alkali metal, e.g., calcium. Since all of these substances, when dissolved, increase the hydroxyl ion concentration, the term alkali is synonymous with base. An aqueous alkaline solution is one with a pH value greater than 7.0. Alkalies are used in conservation work principally in adhesives, and in deacidifying and buffering paper. See also: ALKALINE RESERVE; HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION.
alkaline buffer
See: ALKALINE RESERVE.
alkaline filler
A FILLER (2) used in the manufacture of paper. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the most commonly used alkaline filler.
alkaline process
A method of treating fibrous raw materials with alkaline solutions to liberate fibers or to purify paper pulps. Lime, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, sodium sulfate, and sodium sulfide are used in this process, with sodium hydroxide being used most often. It may be used in both the sulfate and sulfite processes. (17, 144)
alkaline reserve
A buffer, or reserve, of an alkaline substance added to a paper for the purpose of counteracting any acid which may be introduced into it subsequent to DEACIDIFICATION. Soaking paper in a solution of calcium bicarbonate or magnesium bicarbonate adds a small amount of calcium or magnesium carbonate which neutralizes any acid present and also provides a reserve to counteract acid which may enter the paper at some future time. (The bicarbonates are converted to the carbonates during the drying of the paper, with the liberation of carbon dioxide.) The treatment is effective only as long as free alkali remains. Papers which are to remain acid free for long periods of time, e.g., 500 years, should have approximately 3% precipitated carbonate by weight of paper. (198)
all along
all across all on
A method of sewing a book, usually by hand and generally on cords or tapes. The thread goes "all along," inside the fold of the section—that is, from kettle stitch to kettle stitch of each successive section, one complete length of thread for each section. "All along" is traditionally associated with the best method of sewing a book by hand, although books were sewn TWO ON and even THREE ON when the sections were very thin or when an economical method was required. The term is also used, somewhat incorrectly, to describe machine book sewing when each section is sewn with the full number of threads. Also called "one on" and "one sheet on." (236, 335)
alligator grained leather
A grain effect embossed on various types of leathers, such as calf, sheep, or cow, in imitation of the genuine reptilian leather. See: ALLIGATOR LEATHER.
alligator leather
A leather produced from the skin of any member of the reptilian order Crocodilla. Generally, only the belly area of the animal is used, the heavily scaled back being too course and horny. The beauty of alligator leather stems in part from the fact that the scales have a natural "enamel," which, originally, was usually destroyed by crude tanning methods. Later it was preserved, and even enhanced, by "plating" the skin with heated metal plates which gave it its high glaze. Alligator leather is very durable and also very expensive. This term is largely confined to the United States; in Europe it is generally called "crocodile leather." (351, 363)
all on
See: ALL ALONG.
all-over style
1. A style of finishing in which the entire cover, as distinct from the corners, center or borders, is decorated by a single motif, multiple motifs, or a decorative roll. 2. Any pattern in a book cloth which runs both across and down the roll. (130, 156)
alpha cellulose
That part of a cellulosic material that is insoluble in a 17.5% solution of sodium hydroxide at 20° C. under specified conditions. While alpha cellulose consists principally of cellulose, it does include other components that are insoluble under the test conditions. Because the permanence of paper depends to some extent on the absence of non-cellulosic impurities, the determination of true cellulose (alpha cellulose) gives an indication of the stability of the paper, and therefore its permanence. See also: BETA CELLULOSE; CELLULOSE; GAMMA CELLULOSE. (17, 72, 144)
alpha grass
See: ESPARTO (GRASS).
alpha protein
A soy bean protein used in the manufacture of adhesives that are to be combined with casein glues, or used for coating paper.
alum
A salt used in papermaking and in the TAWING of skins. True (potash) alum is chemically a double salt of aluminum, or potassium aluminum sulfate (K2SO4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24H2O). The papermaker's alum in use today is not true alum, but either aluminum sulfate (A12(SO4)3 . 14H2O), (Al2(SO4)3 . 18H2O), or a mixture of these hydrates, and is manufactured by treating pulverized bauxite with sulfuric acid. It is soluble in water, and, while slightly alkaline in the dry form, it is decidedly acidic when dissolved in water. Alum has two major functions in papermaking: 1) to control pH; and 2) because of its floculating ability, to retain other additives in the paper, notably the sizing agent. ROSIN is a basic material used in sizing paper today. As a sizing agent it imparts water (ink) resistance to paper; however, in order for the rosin to be able to impart water resistance it must be rendered insoluble, which is the function if alum. Although the full role of alum in the sizing of paper is not completely understood, one of its functions is to make rosin come out of solution (precipitate) while it is in close contact with the fibers of the paper-making slurry. The fibers are thus coated and impregnated with a solid and water-resistant mixture of rosin and what is probably a compound of rosin and aluminum oxide. Although the excessive use of alum is considered detrimental to the permanence of paper, the papermaker tends to overdose with alum rather than underdose, so as to avoid soft-sizing. In addition, alum is considered by some papermakers to be a panacea for other troubles, such as frothing, sticking of the paper web to the wet presses of the papermaking machine, etc. Overdosing with alum leads to excessive acidity and, under certain circumstances, may lead to severe deterioration of the paper. While alum is not a particularly strong acid, in the presence of certain other substances it can assume a greater strength. Chlorides, which may be present in the paper as a result of bleaching processes, or natural to the water itself, can be particularly harmful. Excessive alum, in the form of aluminum sulfate, may react with chlorides present to form aluminum chloride (AlCl3), which in the presence of moisture and heat, will form hydrochloric acid (HCl)—one of the most powerful of all acids in its effect on cellulose. Alum is sometimes used in solution to wash the leaves of books; in the past it was added to paste to act as a preservative, or as a hardener to render the dry paste less water soluble. It is also used at times as a mordant for marbling colors. See also: ALUM WATER. (32, 43, 72, 195, 236)
aluminum leaf
A bright leaf or foil made of aluminum and often substituted for silver in blocking edition bindings. While it tarnishes less rapidly than silver, it lacks the appearance of richness and depth of silver leaf. It is also less expensive. (83, 140)
aluminum sulfate
A salt of aluminum (Al2(SO4)3), occurring naturally in considerable quantities in alumstone (alumite) and feather alum. It is manufactured by treating bauxite with 80% sulfuric acid at 110° C., the resulting solution being purified, concentrated, and allowed to solidify. See also: ALUM.
alum-size bath
A size bath consisting of ALUM dissolved in water and used by some restorers to remove coffee, tea, blood and some ink stains from paper. (335)
alum-tawed skin
alum "tanning" alum-tawed "leather"
See: TAWING.
alum water
ALUM dissolved in water and used to sponge paper and the edges of books before laying on the marbling colors. The alum acts as a binding medium, attracting and securing the ox-gall and colors to the paper. It also acts as a mordant and is also useful in counteracting excessive gall. (161, 264, 335)
American leather
An obsolete term for one of the varieties of enameled cloth made to imitate leather. See also: IMITATION LEATHER. (256)
American marble
A drawn marble pattern usually used on the edges of stationery bindings, and consisting of black, blue surrounding the black, yellow on the blue, and red on the yellow. The marble is drawn in the same manner as the comb NONPAREIL MARBLE, with an additional drawing of the comb the width of the trough. (264, 339)
American Russia
An imitation RUSSIA LEATHER produced from cowhide or the hide of the American buffalo (bison). It is usually a straight-grained leather. Also called "Russia cowhide."
amorphous
A term applied to adhesives, with reference to their non-crystalline structure.
amylaceous
Pertaining to, or of the nature of STARCH; starchy. See also: PASTE.
amyl acetate
A colorless, volatile liquid ester (C7H14O2) that is very slightly soluble in water, but miscible in alcohol and ether. It is used as a solvent for CELLULOSE ACETATE. Although at one time it was believed to have a preservative effect when applied to leather, it is much too volatile to have afforded lasting protection, even if initially effective.
anchoring
See: TYING DOWN. See also: HEADBAND.
anglos
An imitation RUSSIA LEATHER made in Great Britain from cowhide. See also: AMERICAN RUSSIA. (343)
anhydrous
A term normally used with reference to the chemical salts and solvents, lanolin, etc., meaning that they are free of water.
anhydrous lanolin
See LANOLIN.
aniline
An aromatic primary amine (C6H5NH2). It is a derivative of ammonia in which one hydrogen atom is replaced by the phenyl group. It is manufactured by the reduction of nitrobenzene with iron filings and either hydrochloric acid or ferrous chloride, and subsequent steam distillation after the addition of lime. Aniline is an oily, colorless, toxic liquid, which darkens upon exposure to air. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, and forms a number of salts. It is the base from which a great number of intermediates for dyes are prepared, including dimethylaniline and diethylaniline, which in turn yield many so-called BASIC DYES, such as methyl violet, methyline blue and malachite green. (195)
aniline dyed
A leather that has been dyed by immersion in a dyebath and has not received any coating or pigment finish. (61)
aniline dyes
A class of synthetic, organic dyes originally obtained from aniline (coal tars), which were, in fact, the first synthetic dyes. Today the term is used with reference to any synthetic organic dyes and pigments, regardless of source, in contrast to animal or vegetable coloring materials, natural earth pigments, and synthetic inorganic pigments. Aniline dyes are classified according to their degree of brightness or their light fastness. Basic dyes are known for their extreme brightness, as well as for their lack of COLOR FASTNESS. Aniline dyes are used to impart color to paper, cloth, leather, etc. Also called "coal tar dyes." See also: ACID DYES; BASIC DYES; DIRECT DYES; DYE; LAKE. (17, 164, 343)
aniline ink
An inexpensive volatile printing ink consisting of a dyestuff dissolved in a methylated spirit and bound with a resin. It is considered to be a very fast drying ink. Aniline inks are considerably inferior in permanence to many other types of ink, and are also subject to smudging by water. Although all colors are available, they are lacking in COLOR FASTNESS. (144)
aniline leather
A hide or skin that has been tanned with a vegetable material and then colored either by immersion in a dyebath or by staining, and has not been coated or pigmented. Leather so colored has a depth of coloring said to be superior to pigment coloration. (351)
aniline stained
A leather that has been colored by brushing, padding, or spraying, but which has not received any coating or pigmented finish.
animal glue
See: GLUE.
animals-in-foliage panel
A form of decoration consisting of a PANEL (1) divided in half vertically, each half containing curving foliage with an animal within each curve. (250)
animal size
See: SIZE. (2, 3)
animal sized
A paper sized with a gelatin or glue (and sometimes alum, which acts as an insolubilizer). The gelatin or glue-and-alum solution acts as a preservative and enhances the water resistance of the paper. Generally, only high-grade writing papers, bonds, ledgers, and handmade paper are animal sized. See also: SURFACE SIZED; TUB SIZED. (17, 82, 316)
anionic (substances)
Substances, such as dyes, tannins, oils, etc., that dissolve in water and ionize so that the characteristic ion (dye, tannin, oil, etc.) is the anion and carries a negative charge. They tend to precipitate with CATIONIC (positive charge) SUBSTANCES. (98, 306)
aniseed
The seed of anise (Pimpinella anisum), which produces a pungent oil once used as a preservative for paste.
anisotropic behavior
A material, e.g., paper, that exhibits different properties when tested along axes of different direction. Because paper is hygroscopic, a change in the dimension of its fibers takes place when the relative humidity around it changes; the change is transmitted to the entire sheet, with the result that its length and width are increased or decreased. As the majority of the fibers in machine-made paper lie in the direction of the moving wire of the papermaking machine, i.e., the MACHINE DIRECTION, by far the greater expansion or contraction of dimension of such a paper is in the CROSS DIRECTION, sometimes being on the order of 1.5 to 4.0 times that in the machine direction. Paper exhibits anisotropic behavior basically because of two factors: 1) as stated above, the orientation of the fibers in the machine direction causes them, and therefore the sheet, to expand or contract preferentially in the cross direction. In fact, at one time it was thought that this was the major reason for anisotropic behavior in paper; 2) more recently, however, although orientation of the fibers is still thought to play a role in the behavior, the major reason is considered to be built-in strain, also known as dried-in strain. The matting of fibers formed from the wet slurry on the wire of the machine moves into the dry end of the papermaking machine and is dried rapidly in the drier sections. Because it is wet, the web will contract during drying. Because the tension of the web is in the plane of the machine direction, the paper is able to contract considerably in the cross direction but not in the machine direction, which results in a built- or dried-in strain. The drying is actually so rapid that relaxation of the strain is impossible on the machine, nor does it occur after the web of paper leaves the machine as the dried paper does not have sufficient plasticity for this to happen. Consequently, a machine-made paper has an inherent dried-in strain. Actually, there is some dried-in strain in the cross direction also, as the felts of the machine reduce shrinkage somewhat in that direction. This characteristic results in an anisotropic sheet, one which will expand more in the cross direction than in the machine direction when exposed to an increase in the relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere. If, at some time in the future, the paper is wetted in water, the dried-in strains will be released and, if the sheet is then allowed to dry freely and without restraint, its anisotropic characteristics will be largely lost. Anisotropic characteristics in paper are of great importance in printing, especially in printing processes which involve wetting the paper.
annatto
A yellowish-red coloring material obtained from the pulp surrounding the seeds of the annatto tree (Bixa orellana), and sometimes used in coloring leather and cloth. It is soluble in both alcohol and oil. Its lack of COLOR FASTNESS makes it unsuitable for archival use.
antelope-finish suede
A fine, soft leather having a velvety, lustrous nap. It is produced from lamb-, goat-, or calfskin, sueded on the flesh side and finished to resemble antelope leather. (61)
antiblocking agent
A substance used in either a coating mixture or as an overcoating to prevent one sheet of paper from adhering to another, or to any other object, within a specified range of temperature and humidity. Antiblocking agents are usually waxes or synthetic polymers; a light dusting of talcum powder is sometimes used for the same purpose.
antichlor
A substance used in removing the remaining traces of free chlorine or hypochlorite not removed from a paper pulp by washing. Typical antichlors include sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3) and sodium thiosulfite (Na2S2O3). The antichlor is usually added to the pulp stock near the end of the bleaching stage, and is allowed to react until no blue coloration is obtained with a potassium-starch indicator. This removes the last traces of hypochlorous acid, hypochlorite ion, and free chlorine. The reaction products are then washed out. Antichlors are seldom used in multistage bleaching operations, as they are considered to be wasteful of bleaching agents. (72)
antifoam agents
See: DEFOAMERS.
antimony
A metalloid element (Sb) that is usually a metallic silvery white, but is also found in the black amorphous form. It has been used since at least the late 17th century to blacken the edges of books, especially Bibles, prayer books, and the like. See also: BLACK EDGES.
antique
A term used to describe: 1) BLIND TOOLING; 2) a marble pattern (See: ANTIQUE MARBLE); 3) a form of edge decoration (See: ANTIQUE EDGES); 4) leather finished with an old or natural grain- and 5) a paper with a natural rough surface or finish. See: ANTIQUE BOOK PAPER.
antique binding
1. A modern binding executed in the style of some earlier period, but generally with no intent to deceive. See also: CONTEMPORARY BINDING (2). 2. See: ECCLESIASTICAL BINDINGS.
antique book paper
A book paper generally produced in the United States from bleached chemical wood pulp with a large amount of short-fibered pulp and given a soft, relatively rough finish. In Great Britain it is produced largely from ESPARTO (GRASS) pulp. Antique book paper varies from lightweight to relatively heavy weight; 60 pound, basis weight antique bulks approximately 330 pages to the inch. Many books, and particularly novels, are printed on this type of paper, especially those containing only textual matter and/or bold line drawings. Antique papers generally are not suitable for fine line drawings or half-tone illustrations. (17, 72)
antique cover paper
A cover paper with an antique finish.
antique edges
antique style
A further embellishment of the edges of a book following gilding. It involves applying gold of a different hue, e.g., LEMON gold, over the gilded edge, with the design being worked into the overlaid gold; the untouched (new) gold then is rubbed off. Sometimes the effect of antique edges is produced without the designs if the original gold is left unburnished, or is burnished and then washed with water. The technique is seldom employed today. See also: GAUFFERED EDGES. (241, 343)
antique grain
A surface pattern on leather consisting of markings or creases, usually irregular, in which the hollows or valleys are given a contrasting color to produce a two-tone or two-color effect. The creases are produced either by EMBOSSING (1) or BOARDING (1). (61)
antique marble
A series of marble patterns executed by dropping red, black 7 and yellow, or red, blue and yellow, on the marbling size, and raking once up and down; this is followed by an application of green coloring and, if the pattern is to be an antique spot, pink or green spots. Finally, there is a sprinkling of white. Other colors are also used. The antique marble is produced in a variety of patterns, including spots, straight, and curled. (369)
antique tooling
See: BLIND TOOLING.
a pattern
A cloth pattern with a long, narrow grain. Cf: J PATTERN; L PATTERN.
apparent density
The weight per unit volume of a sheet of paper. It is calculated by dividing the BASIS WEIGHT of the paper by its caliper. The value so derived depends upon the definition of a ream, i.e., whether 480, 500, 516, etc., sheets. See also: DENSITY; SPECIFIC GRAVITY. (17)
apparent specific gravity
The weight of a given volume of leather divided by the weight of an equal volume of water, making no allowance for voids or air spaces in the volume of leather measured. See also: SPECIFIC GRAVITY. (363)
appliqué work
A design on EMBROIDERED BINDINGS consisting of spirals in gold and silver which, when flattened, give the appearance of a series of rings. They were sometimes used as a border. When the applique was not very large, a variation was to make a series of small stitches along all edges, masking the stitches with an overlaid gold cord. (111)
apron
1. The lower cloth on a ruling machine that carries the ruled sheets from the lower cords to the lay-boy or receiving box. 2. The extra amount of unprinted paper left to serve as the binding edge of a leaf that folds out. See a1so: FULL APRON.
aqua regia
A mixture of nitric acid (HNO3) and hydrochloric acid (HCl), in a solution of one part of the former to three parts of the latter. Aqua regia was used in making so-called "killed spirits," largely in the 18th century, to impart a wine-like tint to red marbling color. The "killed spirits" were produced by adding a block of tin to the acid solution, which resulted in the formation of tin chloride (HNO3 + HCl + Sn = SnCl + NO2 + H2O) (152)
aqueous
Containing water, or water based. Adhesive systems such as starch, dextrin, natural gums, animal glue, etc., as well as some inks, certain deacidification systems, leather tannins, bleaching solutions, and the like that use water as the carrier are aqueous systems.
arabesque
A relatively old form of book decoration, revived by French gilders and reintroduced into England in about 1829. It consists of interlaced lines and convoluted curves arranged in a more or less geometrical pattern. The name derives from the fact that it was brought to its highest perfection by Near Eastern artists. The term is also used to describe a style of ornamentation in relief, consisting of fanciful human or animal figures combined with floral forms. Arabesque is also sometimes inappropriately applied to the embossed designs on book covers. (181, 241, 342)
arabesque plates
Solid brass plates cut, usually in intaglio, with a design and imprinted on a leather cover by means of a blocking press, or large fly embossing press. (152, 181)
arabic gum
See: GUM ARABIC.
arabic numerals
The numerical symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, as distinguished from the Roman I, X, L, etc., so called because of their origin in the Near East. They have been used in the foliation of books since the late 15th century. Arabic numerals first appeared in European manuscripts in the 12th century, although they probably came to the Near East by way of India in the 8th century. Arabic numerals are commonly used for paginating the text of a book, although Roman numerals are still often used for preliminary and end matter, despite the obvious affectation. (156)
archil
A dye obtained from certain lichens of the genera Roccella and Lecanora by means of fermentation. Its hue varies from moderate red to dark purplish-red, depending on whether the dye bath is acid or alkaline. It was used in the past in the manufacture of purple marbling color. It has only moderate COLOR FASTNESS. (97, 152)
architectural motif
A form of decoration consisting of a pattern of straight lines running almost the length of the cover and connected alternately at head and tail by heavier horizontal lines. (130)
architectural style
A 16th century style of finishing consisting of architectural motifs—porticoes, moldings, columns, pediments, arches, and the like. The central feature was a pair of columns supporting an arch under which there was a panel for lettering of the title. This style, of which only a relatively few examples have survived, generally emphasized straight and curved fillets, interspaced with shaped tools. The 19th century French bookbinder JOSEPH THOUVENIN revived the style as "a la cathedral.' See: CATHEDRAL BINDINGS. The contents of the books bound in the architectural style seldom related to architecture. (140, 347)
Argentina, Conradus de
See: CONRADUS DE ARGENTINA
Armenian bole
A friable, earthy clay, usually of a red color due to the presence of iron oxide; it consists essentially of hydrous silicates of aluminum and (sometimes) magnesium. It is used as a coloring material and is also applied to the edges of books during gilding. In the latter use it serves both to provide a base for the gold leaf and to impart to it a greater depth and luster. When mixed with paste and a small amount of oil, it may be used to sprinkle the edges of books. (335)
arming press
A small hand BLOCKING PRESS, at one time used for impressing ARMORIAL BEARINGS on the covers of books, but now used for blocking short runs of edition bindings, as well as in miscellaneous binding work. (203, 278)
armorial bearings
Solid plates of brass, engraved in relief with family heraldic insignia, and used to block insignia on the covers of books belonging to prominent and/ or royal families. Armorial bearings have been seldom used in the decoration of bookbindings since the middle of the 19th century. (128, 262, 347)
armorial bindings
armorial panels
Leather or cloth bindings embossed with armorial seals or plaques, frequently in a panel, or embroidered bindings in which the arms were raised in relief and worked in thread. (69, 342)
art binding
A term sometimes used to describe a book that has been bound by a master craftsman in the "best manner," using only the finest materials available. The term is applied only to books bound by hand and covered in leather or vellum, and usually only to those bindings that are unique or at least distinctive in design. (373)
art canvas
A relatively heavy book cloth, usually impregnated, which may be a single or double WARP and is sometimes lined with tissue paper to prevent penetration of adhesives. It has been used for covering large, heavy books, as well as library bindings. (264)
artificial gold
See: IMITATION GOLD.
artificial grain
A grain pattern embossed or rolled into a leather, usually in an attempt to imitate a superior type of leather. See also: BASIL; GRAINED UP. (335)
artificial leather
See: IMITATION LEATHER.
art linen
A relatively heavy cloth of a generally flat and uneven color, and usually impregnated. When art linens are produced with a design, the patterns are usually florid and ornate. (204)
art paper
1. A good quality paper used by artists and conservators. It has a highly finished, smooth surface produced by supercalendering or by coating. Its principal characteristic is its close formation. In Great Britain, "art paper" is considered to be a body paper or board coated with a mineral substance, such as barium sulfate or china clay, which gives it a smoothness that is suitable for the printing of fine halftones, and the like. In the United States, art paper is generally made from chemical wood pulp, while in Great Britain the best art paper is made from 90 to 95% esparto and 5 to 10% chemical wood pulp. Esparto is good because it is less likely to stretch and has a natural affinity for coating materials, which gives it a superior surface for halftone reproductions. Heavily coated art papers are prone to cracking, flaking, and pulling away of the coating. The binding of books produced on such papers can be difficult because of the tendency of the paper to crack when folded. Cf: IMITATION ART PAPER. 2. A fancy figured paper used for endpapers in edition binding. (17, 58, 182, 287)
art parchment
A thick, heavy, hard-sized paper manufactured from cotton fiber and/or chemical wood pulps. To some extent it has the natural appearance of PARCHMENT. It is used for documents, or in other applications where a heavy paper is required; in the latter half of the 19th century it was used as a cover paper. See also: DOCUMENT PARCHMENT (1). (17)
art vellum
A relatively thin book cloth, which, although impregnated, has only moderately good wearing qualities. It is a smooth cloth with a textured pattern printed on a white base fabric. Art vellums were used extensively for the sides of half- and quarter-bindings. (105, 205)
asbestine
A mineral compound of almost pure fibrous magnesium silicate, which possesses physical characteristics between those of talc and asbestos. It is used as a LOADING (1) agent in paper manufacture, particularly for blotting papers and board. (17)
ash
ash content
The inorganic residue remaining after a sample of paper is burned, driving off combustible and volatile compounds. The "ash content" is defined as the percentage the residue is of the original weight of the sample. (17, 98)
"as is"
See: BIND AS IS.
assembly time
A term used in the adhesive industry to indicate the time lapse between the application of an adhesive and the application of heat, pressure, or both. See also: CLOSED ASSEMBLY TIME; OPEN ASSEMBLY TIME. (309)
assiette
A compound consisting of bole, bloodstone, and gelena (lead sulfide, PbS), used to prepare the edges of books for gilding. See also: GLAIR.
A-stage
An initial stage in the reaction of some thermosetting resins wherein the resin continues to be soluble and fusible. "A-stage" is characterized by an initial lowering of viscosity. Also called "Resol. ' See also: B-STAGE; C-STAGE. (309)
asterisk
The symbol (*) used to mark a corrected page (CANCEL) supplied to the binder to replace an incorrect leaf (CANCELLAND).
atlas
A volume consisting of maps, with or without descriptive material, which is issued to supplement or accompany a text, or is issued independently. An "atlas" is also defined as a volume of plates, engravings, etc., illustrating any field of knowledge. Atlases are sometimes difficult to bind because of narrow margins, stiff and/or heavy paper, or foldouts.
atlas folio
The largest of the folios, with dimensions of approximately 25 or 26 x 17 inches. See also: ELEPHANT FOLIO.
atlas paper
A large size of drawing paper similar to map paper except that it is usually coated and made in a basis weight that is heavier so as to minimize SHOW THROUGH. Originally, the term referred to a paper suitable for printing maps and atlases; today, however, MAP PAPER is the more commonly used term. (17)
attaching boards
The process of gluing the tapes and spine-lining material to the inside of single boards or between SPLIT BOARDS, or the LACING-IN of the cords through holes drilled or punched in boards. In general, it is the binding process of joining the boards to the text block; it is not to be confused with CASING-IN. In edition and library binding, the term has no meaning other than gluing the boards to the covering material, either by hand or by means of a CASE-MAKING MACHINE. (236, 335)
attapulgite clay
A fibrous claylike material, essentially ((OH2)4 Mg5Si8O20(OH)2 -- 4H2O), rich in magnesium, and used as a filling material in papermaking, usually in coatings for reproduction papers. The clay is also called "fuller's earth," from its ability to remove dirt and grease from wool, a process called "fulling." (17)
aureole
A light or luminous area surrounding the blind impressions of a book cover; it is caused by the leather not being wetted all over, but only on the areas being tooled.
author's binding
A copy of a book to be presented by an author. Such bindings were normally produced in a superior manner; gilt vellum bindings were common in the 16th century, and panelled morocco in the 1 7th and 18th. The term has little meaning today. (69)
automatic clamping
A term used with reference to the clamp of a cutting machine, which descends upon any height pile to be cut and exerts approximately the same clamping pressure for all heights and types of material. (145)
automatic spacing
The BACK GAUGE of a cutting machine that moves forward a pre-determined distance following each cut. It is most effective in cutting long-run, large-sized sheets requiring many cuts. (320)
automatic stitcher-feeder machine
A bookbinding machine that gathers and inserts a number of folded sheets and stitches them through the folds. The sheets are either fed by operators to the carrier saddle at various stations, or are fed automatically. As each folio is carried along the saddle, another is fed over it at each station until the section or book is complete. When the section reaches the end of the machine it is automatically knocked even, saddle stitched and delivered to a receiving trough. (179)
aux petits fers
See: PETITS FERS.
available chlorine
The amount of chlorine (usually about 35%) in the bleaching powder used by papermakers in bleaching paper pulp, that can be relied upon for bleaching purposes. (197)
avaram (bark)
A tree (Cassia auriculata) found in India, the bark of which is one of the most important sources of indigenous tannin of the Indian Subcontinent. The bark usually has a tannin content of approximately 18%, along with about 10% soluble non-tans. Avaram has long been used extensively by Indian tanners, and it is because of it that the extensive Madras export trade in light-tanned or half tanned leathers was established. Although WATTLE (BARK) has largely superseded it in the tannage of cattle hides, avaram is still in great demand for the tannage of goat- and sheepskins, i.e., "East India kips." Avaram is self-bating and penetrates the skin rapidly, producing a pale colored, tough, elastic leather. Used alone, the leather is likely to develop a reddish color when exposed to sunlight; however completion of the tannage with MYRABOLANS prevents this from happening. Avaram is considered to be an ideal tannin for the preparation of half tanned skins or kips that are to be shipped elsewhere for finishing. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
awl
A pointed tool used in bookbinding for piercing holes in paper for fold sewing, side sewing, or for punching holes in boards preparatory to lacing-in. Awls are available with different points and shapes for different uses; a straight, relatively blunt awl is used for punching holes in boards, while a curved and relatively sharp one is used in sewing. (183)
azured tool
A finishing tool with closely spaced parallel lines cut diagonally across its surface—so called from the use of heraldic illustrations of thin horizontal lines to indicate the color blue. The tool appears to have been introduced in France in about 1545. (59)
b.a
An obsolete designation for a pattern in book cloth resembling linen weaving.
babul (bark)
A tree (Acacia arabica) found in India and Africa, the bark of which yields one of the most important indigenous tanning materials in the Northern areas of India and Pakistan. The average tannin content of the bark is about 12%, along with about 8% soluble non-tans. Babul is one of the condensed class of tannins, and, when used alone, tans very slowly and produces a leather that is somewhat harsh and dark in color, but firm and durable. It is usually used along with MYRABOLANS to improve color and reduce other undesirable characteristics resulting from the use of babul alone. In recent years the use of babul bark has declined in favor of WATTLE (BARK). See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
baby calf
A CALFSKIN leather produced from small, lightweight skins of calves that have not been weaned. It has a smooth or fine-boarded grain surface and is free of any artificial surface pattern. The finish is glossy and is produced by ironing, glazing, or plating. Baby calf is fairly tough leather with a dermal network of fine, even texture. See also: VEAL. (61)
back
1. See: SPINE. 2. To shape a ridge or shoulder on the sides of the spine of a text block after sewing. See: BACKING. 3. The main portion of a HIDE (1), obtained by cutting off both sides of the belly and the head. 4. Boards composed of plies of different stock, the side of superior quality being called the "top" and the other side the "back."
back boarding
The process of BOARDING (1) leather with the flesh side in for the sole purpose of softening it.
backbone
SPINE (2) of a book.
back cornering
See illustration The process in bookbinding of cutting away a small triangular piece of the head and tail edges of the boards of a book at the joints. The cut is made at two angles, one to the board edge and the other to the thickness of the board. The amount removed and the angle of the cut are determined by the width of the leather turn-ins and their thickness where they meet the edge of the board. The purpose of back cornering is to relieve the strain on the joints of the book when the covers are opened; otherwise, a strain would occur because of the additional thickness of the leather caused by the turn-ins. Back cornering also facilitates setting and shaping the headcaps. Back cornering was at first done on the inside of the boards, allowing for "laced-in" headband cores or tabs. By the late Middle Ages, back cornering was a standard procedure for books with folded-down or stubbed cores. The modern method of cornering on the outside surfaces of the boards facilitates the current method of headcapping and probably stems from the 18th century. (237, 335)
back cover
See: LOWER COVER. 2. The outside surface of the lower cover of a publication, such as a periodical issue. The term is used here with reference to publications that contain printed or illustrative matter on the outside of the cover.
backed
1. A book that has had its spine shaped to create the shoulders to receive the boards. See: BACKING. 2. A damaged leaf of a book, either text or plate, that has been "laid down on" or adhered to silk, paper, linen, plastic film, adhesive film, etc., for reinforcement. See also: NYLON. 3. See: REBACKED.
back edge
The left-hand or gutter of a RECTO (1), corresponding to the right-hand edge of a VERSO (1). The opposite edge is the back edge of publications that read from right to left.
backed-filled finish
A type of finish used on cotton cloth. The filling material is applied to the "back" side of the cloth to supply the required body and finish, and does not appear on the "top" or exposed side. (269)
backer
backing machine
A hand- or power-operated machine used for BACKING books. The backer stems from the days when a book was rounded by hand and then placed in the backer to quickly form the shoulders for the boards. Today, in both edition and library binding, the most common method is to round and back books in two consecutive operations in a ROUNDING AND BACKING MACHINE. Unusually large books, which will not fit in a machine, are generally backed by hand or in a hand-operated backer. See also: JOB BACKER. (256, 264)
back folds
The folds of the sections of a book, through which they are sewn. or otherwise fastened to one another. In context, they are sometimes referred to simply as folds. See also: SECTION (1). (237)
back gauge
A movable device on a cutting machine against which the pile of paper or board is placed when measuring the line at which the material is to be cut.
back gluing machine
An edition binding machine used to glue up the spines of books and automatically convey them along a drying section which quickly sets and hardens the glue. The maximum size book that can usually be processed in such a machine is 12 by 9 inches, and the minimum 3 by 2 inches, with a thickness up to 2 1/2 inches. A fully automatic back gluing machine can process up to 2,400 books an hour. See also: TRIPLE LINER AND HEADBANDING MACHINE. (343)
backing
See illustration The process of shaping a ridge or shoulder on each side of the spine of a text block prior to the application of the spine lining material. The backs of the sewn sections or leaves are bent over from the center to the left and right until shoulders are formed against which the boards will fit. The dimension of the shoulders is determined by the thickness of the boards to be used, which, in turn, is determined by the size and bulk of the book. In addition to providing for the boards, backing also:1) allows for the swell of the spine caused by the thread used in sewing, or by excessive guarding; 2) helps maintain the round of the book by the fact that each leaf from the center outward is folded over the leaf next to it so that it cannot work its way forward and thus cause the hook to cave in (See: START); 3) helps impart more flexibility to the book by creating a slight crease in each leaf near the spine, to the extent that backing has something of a scoring effect which makes the book easier to open and facilitates turning the leaves (See: SCORE); and 4) makes a better joint for the cover, one which opens easier and is stronger, since the point of strain during opening is spread over a strip of the covering material, e.g., a FRENCH JOINT. Furthermore, the angle of conformation of the spine caused by backing probably provides for better vertical standing support of the text block. Backing may be accomplished by hand with the use of a BACKING HAMMER or, in the case of edition and library binding, by means of a ROUNDING AND BACKING MACHINE. In some cases e.g., very large books, backing may be done in a BACKER as a separate operation. Some authorities consider the backing of a book to be the most important and difficult of all the processes in the craft of hand bookbinding, and poor or inadequate backing is certainly one of the major sources of problems in the processes of edition and library bookbinding. Although books dating from at least as early as the beginning of the second half of the 15th century were often rounded, backing for the purpose of forming shoulders seems not to have been an established procedure before 1500, or perhaps somewhat later. It is uncertain when bookbinders discovered that rounding and backing was a superior bookbinding technique. The swell caused by sewing sometimes causes books to assume a slight round with no effort on the part of the bookbinder, and, over a long period of time, the pressure of the boards perhaps even results in the effect of backing. (209, 236, 335, 339)
backing boards
The boards used in hand binding to assist in BACKING a book. Backing boards are generally made of a very hard wood and are frequently faced with strips of metal. The upper edge of the board is beveled at an angle of approximately 80°, over which the outer sections or leaves on both sides of the text block are bent. The board is also thicker at this edge than at the lower, so that when it is placed on the side of the text block near the spine and secured in the LYING PRESS, the force of the press is concentrated nearest the spine. (92, 183, 335)
backing flannel
A heavy cloth material used at times to line the spines of larger books. A more common technique today is to use two linings, usually a first lining of cloth over which is applied a paper lining See also: SPINE LINING FABRIC. (27, 196)
backing hammer
A heavy iron hammer with a short handle, heavy face, and wedge-shaped head, used in rounding and backing books. It is sometimes referred to as a "collet hammer" or "bumping hammer" See also: BACKING; ROUNDING AND BACKING MACHINE. (335)
backing iron
See: BACK-MOLDING IRON.
backing paper
See: INLAY (1); SPINE LINING PAPER.
backing press
A vertically oriented press with steel plates brought together by means of a single screw. The top edge of each plate is beveled to an angle of approximately 80°, so that when the plates are closed on the text block, the press serves the same function as BACKING BOARDS. (25)
back lining
See: SPINE LINING.
back margin
The INNER MARGIN, or the margin between the point where the sections or leaves are joined and the edge of the print. In books that read from left to right it is the left-hand margin of a printed recto, corresponding to the right-hand margin of the verso. Also called "gutter margin." (102)
back mark
The disfiguring ridge or "mark" in a sheet of paper which has been dried on a pole or line. Also called "pole mark," or "stick mark."
back-molding iron
See illustration An implement, usually made of iron, approximately 20 inches long, 6 inches wide and 2 1/2 inches thick, and used in forming the millboard for the SPRING-BACK of a book. The iron is made with several grooves of various widths on both sides. (264)
back saw
A short, fine-toothed hand saw stiffened by means of a metal rib along its back edge. It is used to saw-in the kettle kerfs and the grooves for sawn-in cords. Although almost any small saw will suffice in lieu of the back saw, it has the advantages of being short, stiff and easy to hold. It must be very sharp to avoid tearing the paper. Also called "tenon saw."
backstrip
1. A term used incorrectly with reference to the SPINE of a book. See also: REBACKED. 2. See: GUARD (1). 3. See: INLAY (1).
back to fore edge
The distance from the spine to the fore edge of a book. The term is probably used mainly to indicate that a book is of uniform thickness across its width. i.e., that the boards are parallel. The implication is that there has been proper compensation for any swelling of the spine caused by sewing or excessive guarding. See also: BACKING; CONVEX COVERS. (335)
bacterial resistance
The resistance of a material to the growth of bacteria and/ or mold. This property represents one of the more significant advantages of resinous adhesives over the conventional adhesives. (258)
bactericide
A material used in small concentrations, e.g., 0.1% by weight of the material being treated, to kill, or inhibit the growth of, bacteria that may occur in liquid or solid adhesives, or may attack carbohydrate or proteinaceous adhesive films. (222)
Badier, Florimond
fl 1645-1660
A Parisian bookbinder, apprenticed to Jean Thomas in 1630, who became a master bookbinder in 1645. His name is associated with the art of POINTILLÉ (1) and sumptuous doublures. Badier also used a distinctive finishing stamp cut in the shape of a man's head. Only three signed bindings of his are known; many bindings attributed to him may be the work of imitators. At one time, Badier was considered by some authorities to be the legendary LE GASCON; this was largely because of his pointillé style. (73, 347)
bagasse pulp
A paper pulp obtained from the crushed stalks of sugar cane (usually considered to be Saccharum officinarum), following the extraction of the juices. The pulp is prepared for use by mechanical disintegration in water, either with or without chemical treatment. The pulp produced is coarse. bulky, and of low strength, and is used principally in the manufacture of boards. (72)
bag binding
An additional protective covering provided a book. It is usually made of leather. See also: GIRDLE BOOK. (104)
Bagguley, Thomas
An English bookbinder, of Newcastle under Lyme, who, in the late 19th century, devised a method of tooling vellum and similar materials in permanent colors. Bagguley limited his technique to vellum, as he considered leather to be too lacking in purity of color to offer a satisfactory ground for unrestricted color decoration. Because of the delicate nature of his work, he further restricted his technique to vellum doublures. See also: SUTHERLAND DECORATION. (94)
ball tool
A small finishing tool cut in the shape of a ball.
bamboo
A giant grass of the tribe Bambusseae, located in the tropical areas of the Eastern Hemisphere, and cultivated successfully in some parts of the southern United States. The fibers are not unlike those of straw in many aspects. Bamboo fibers have an average length of 2.4mm., which puts them between the softwood and hardwood fibers. It is used extensively in India for the manufacture of all grades of chemical pulp and paper. Paper made from it is relatively soft and bulky, with a high tearing resistance but relatively low burst and tensile strength. Although writing and printing papers are produced from 100% bamboo pulp, superior results are realized when the bamboo is blended with other pulps that increase burst and tensile strength. Bamboo is also the traditional material used in making molds and other devices used in the manufacture of handmade paper. (17, 143)
band board
A wooden block about 9 by 12 inches, 6 inches thick at the head and 5 at the foot, on which headbanders in library binderies used to lay their zinc boards with dampened headbands, prior to attaching them to the text blocks. (256).
band driver
A blunt, chisel-shaped tool, usually made of wood, and used in hand binding to attain uniformity and also to correct any irregularities of the bands on which the book is sewn. See also: BAND NIPPERS. (94, 261)
banding
See: BANDS (2).
band nippers
See illustration Pincers which have broad, flat jaws, used for straightening the bands of a book sewn on raised cords, and also for nipping up the leather during covering. The better nippers are nickleplated or made of stainless steel to avoid discoloring the leather, and are equipped with a spring to keep the jaws open when in use. (161)
band pallet
A type of PALLET (1) used to impress a complete design on the spine of a book between the raised bands. Sometimes called a "butterstamp." (97)
band pattern
A device, generally made of brass, with holes drilled indicating the position of the bands of books to be sewn on raised cords. (264)
bands
See illustration 1. The cords or thongs on which the sections of books are sewn. They may be raised for FLEXIBLE SEWING, sawn-in for RECESSED-CORD sewing, or FLEXIBLE NOT TO SHOW. Early bands (or thongs, as they were originally called) were made of leather, which was not very durable, or tawed skin, which was very durable. Leather thongs began to be replaced by cords during the latter years of the 16th century. Hemp and linen cords are commonly used today. Sewing on raised bands came into use in England sometime between the 12th and 13th centuries, although the technique had been introduced into northern Europe centuries earlier. The first raised band sewing was on double bands, ranging in number from two to five. The bands were positioned so that there was a greater space between the bands themselves than between the top and bottom bands and the head and tail of the book. Single bands began to replace double ones and, by the mid-16th century, had become predominant in the more economical styles of binding. 2. Strips of reinforcing material (usually leather) which extend across the spine, or spring-back, and onto the sides of a book, usually a stationery binding. The bands may be placed on the boards before covering, in which case they are called "underbands," or over the covering material, where they are known as "overbands." Bands are used to strengthen large blankbooks in the area of the joints, and to provide additional leather at areas of heavy surface abrasion. They also protect, to some extent, the lettering on the spine of the book. When overbands are used, they are generally decorated in some manner, usually in the design of their lacing or riveting; this step is needed because adhesive alone will not keep the overbands attached to the book. In the case of underbands, the decoration of the covering leather is often concentrated around the area of the bands. The size and position of the bands, both over and under, are based on definite proportions of the cover of the book. Bands may be single, double, or double straight. When single bands are used, the cover is divided into 19 equal parts. Each band is 3/19 the length of the cover, and there are 3/19 the cover length between the bands. The top and bottom bands are each 2/19 from the head and tail edges of the cover, respectively. All three bands extend into the cover 2/5 of its width. Double bands, in addition to providing additional strength across the spine, also provide an additional thickness of leather along the edges of the boards. These bands are more complicated than single bands, as the bands at head and tail are equal to 5/19 of the length of the cover, with 2 of the 5/19 bands extending the full width of the cover, while the other 3/19 extend only the customary 2/5. The center band also extends 2/5 the width. With double band there is no space between the bands and the head and tail of the boards. A variation of the double band is the double straight. In this technique, the length of the cover is divided into five equal segments. Each band is 1/5 the length of the cover. The head and tail bands extend the full width of the cover, while the middle one extends the customary 2/5. Bands were also used to some extent in limp vellum binding, in which case the bands were sewn through the sections of the book. The use of bands as a technique for strengthening bindings has been practiced since at least the 14th century. At one time they were commonly referred to as "Russia bands" because of the use of RUSSIA LEATHER in making them. 3. Lines in gold or in blind impressed by means of a pallet across the spine of a book sewn on recessed cords in the same positions as would be occupied by the raised bands used in flexible sewing. 4. False bands attached to a HOLLOW BACK book or a TIGHT BACK book sewn on recessed cords, in imitation of flexible sewing. 5. The strips of brass attached to the tail edges of the covers of large blankbooks, for the purpose of protecting the leather covering from wear. 6. A form of decoration consisting of wide parallel lines with ornaments impressed between them. (83, 123, 152, 236, 241, 256, 264, 343)
bands frayed
The cords (bands) of a book which have been separated (frayed out) into individual threads. The frayed out cords, which extend out from the text block 1 to 2 1/2 inches, are glued between split boards, and are frayed out so as to avoid bulging of the boards. Cf: LACING-IN. (25)
bandstick
See illustration 1. A hard, smooth length of wood, frequently beechwood, used in pressing and smoothing the leather over the bands on the spine. The bandstick may consist of a narrow strip having a smooth sharpened edge on one side, in which case it is used to work one side of a band at a time, or it may be grooved so that the stick fits over the band. The latter type may have graduated grooves on both sides to accommodate bands of varying widths. 2. A tapering length of hard, smooth wood, used in pressing and smoothing the leather on the spine between the raised bands. Also called "rubbing-up stick." (232, 264)
barium carbonate
A white compound (BaCO3), insoluble in water. The use of BARIUM HYDROXIDE in the deacidification of paper results in the formation of barium carbonate as the alkaline reserve in the paper, due to the action of atmospheric carbon dioxide on the barium hydroxide.
barium hydroxide
A white, toxic alkali (Ba(OH)2), formed by the reaction of barium monoxide with water, or by the action of sodium hydroxide on soluble barium salts. It is one of the agents used in the non-aqueous deacidification of paper.
barium sulfate
A white, soluble, heavy compound (BaSO4), obtained either from the natural mineral barytes, or by chemical treatment of barium with sulfuric acid, and used both as a filler and coating pigment in paper manufacture, particularly photographic papers. It is used alone or in combination with other pigments. It has good affinity for ink, a bright color, and good opacity. It does not, however, produce a high finish. It is also used to form the pigment LITHOPONE. The artificial compound is also known as "blanc fixe." (72)
bark
1. The outer surfaces of trees and other woody plants. The inner side of the bark of certain trees, e.g., birch, has been used in the past as a surface for writing. Bark books were rather common in Central Asia and the Far East until comparatively recent times. Bark is vulnerable to dampness and curling in climates of high relative humidity and to cracking in dry areas. 2. See: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (102)
barkometer
An instrument used to measure the weight of a vegetable tannin liquor per unit volume.
bark skiver
A vegetable (oak bark) tanned sheepskin, light tan in color, and used extensively in the 19th century as a covering material for law books. It is not considered to be either permanent or durable. See also: LAW SHEEP.
bark tanned
A general term used to indicate a leather that has been vegetable tanned mainly by means of tannins derived from the bark of trees as distinguished from mixed tannages. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS.
barm skin
The name given a leather apron sometimes worn by bookbinders.
barrier sheet
A leaf inserted in a book to prevent the transfer of ink (and possibly acid substances) from a plate or illustration to a facing page, as well at times to elucidate the plate or illustration it accompanies. The sheet may be a highly sized paper, so called acid-free paper, or, more often, glassine paper. It may be loose in the book, sewn in with the binding, or, in the usual case, tipped to the leaf it protects. Barrier sheets are frequently made of an inferior quality of paper, one which will eventually develop acidity that can in turn be transferred to the facing text leaves, weakening them. For this reason, they should be removed, or, if they bear letterpress and therefore must be retained, deacidified and buffered, strengthened (if necessary), and reinserted in the volume. See also: ACID MIGRATION. (173)
bar roll
A ROLL (1) cut with a series of parallel raised lines at right angles to its sides.
Barrow, William J.
1904-1967
An American document restorer and former director of the W. J. Barrow Research Laboratory, located in Richmond, Virginia, at one time considered by many authorities to be the leading independent scientific center for research into paper and the deterioration of paper. Barrow developed a process for laminating brittle documents between tissue and cellulose acetate film, as well as a highly effective means of deacidifying paper. He demonstrated the actual facts of paper stability over the past four centuries and developed a durable paper having a high degree of permanence. Barrow was also involved in other investigations connected with paper and ink for a period of more than 30 years, and was probably the most important single contributor to the knowledge of methods of achieving permanence and durability of archival materials. The Barrow laboratory ceased operations in 1977. See also: DEACIDIFICATION; LAMINATION. (7)
Bartlett, Roger
c 1633-1712
An English bookbinder who was apprenticed to Samuel Satterthwaite in 1647, and was set up in his own business in London in 1654. He subsequently left London and set up business in Oxford some time after the great fire of 1666 and began producing the excellent gold-tooled presentation books for which he is well known. His bindings include certain distinctive features, including rows of floral volutes along cottage roofs, as well as swags hanging from the eves. Bartlett retired to his birthplace (Watlington in Oxfordshire) in 1711 or 1712, apparently having sold his bindery. The latest important binding executed by Bartlett is dated 1685, but records indicate that he continued binding thereafter. (50, 205, 253)
barytes
See: BARIUM SULFATE.
base
1. See: ALKALI. 2. A metal block on which a die or electro for stamping or embossing is mounted. 3. A prepared bed in a blocking press over which cases are fed, and which provides a solid foundation for producing sharp impressions.
base coat
The first of a multiple system of coatings. The base coat is frequently a relatively inexpensive filling material designed to prevent excessive penetration of subsequent and often more expensive coatings.
base fabric
In general, the basic cloth used for covering books, regardless of the final form it may take, i.e., coated, impregnated, or filled. Base cloths are usually of cotton, thoroughly cleaned, free from waste, evenly woven, with the warp yarns woven in pairs. (209)
basic dyes
A class of dyes, usually synthetic, that act as bases, and which are actually ANILINE DYES. Their color base is not water soluble but can be made so by converting the base into a salt. The basic dyes, while possessing great tinctorial strength and brightness, are not generally light-fast; therefore their use in the dyeing of archival materials is largely restricted to those materials not requiring this characteristic. Basic dyes were at one time used extensively in dyeing leather, mainly because they are capable of combining directly with vegetable-tanned leather without the use of a mordant. See also: DYE, (17, 62, 72)
basic size
The sheet size of paper, determined by trade custom, as that agreed upon for calculating the BASIS WEIGHT of the paper. Initially it was the size which could be printed, folded and trimmed with the greatest economy. Some of the specifications for basic sizes in use in the United States are: Type of paper Size (in inches) Bible 25 X 38 Blanks 22 X 38 Blotting 19 X 24 Bond 17 X 22 Book 25 X 38 Cover 20 X 26 Glassine 24 X 36 Gummed 25 X 38 Index 25 1/2 X 30 1/2 Ledger 17 X 22 Manifold 17 X 22 Manuscript 18 X 31 Mimeograph 17 X 22 Newsprint 24 X 36 Offset 25 X 38 Onionskin 17 X 22 Opaque 25 X 38 Poster 24 X 36 Tag 22 1/2 X 28 1/2 or 24 X 36 Text 25 X 38 Tissues 24 X 36 Vellum bristol 22 1/2 X 28 1/2 Writing 17 X 22 All are based on a ream of 500 sheets. (17, 316, 324)
basil
A vegetable-tanned, sheep- or lamb-skin, producing a soft, smooth leather but with only moderately good wearing qualities. Its smooth surface lends itself well to graining in imitation of other skins, such as goat. There are several types of basil, including E.I. (East India), N. Z. (New Zealand) and Aus. (Australia), all of which are generally tanned with native or mimosa bark. Crust basils are tanned loose in pits and sold dry as taken from the drying sheds; strained basils are tanned as crust, but wet down, set out with a slicker, stretched and allowed to dry; tawed basils are sheepskins dressed with alum and salt and finished in a white or nut brown color; and organ basils are also tawed but with the salt removed. Diced basils are skins which have been dyed red, glazed, and embossed with a diced cross line. Because of their relatively poor wearing characteristics, basils are not often used today in bookbinding, although in the first half of the 20th century they were employed fairly extensively in binding cheaper blankbooks, and the like. (61, 69, 343)
basis weight
The actual weight of a ream of paper (normally 500 sheets, but at times 480 or 516), cut to its BASIC SIZE. The standard, or basic, size ream varies with different grades of paper. Some papers and boards are produced to a specified caliper (thickness), rather than to a specific weight; an example of this is heavy cover paper. The United States Government Printing Office uses a unit of 1,000 sheets, which is also used in the M.M. SYSTEM. In most foreign countries, as well as in certain domestic test procedures, the standard size is a square meter, with the weight being expressed in grams per square meter. The basis weight of board is commonly expressed in pounds per 1,000 square feet. Book paper basis weights are based on the 25 by 38 inch sheet size, while cover paper weights are calculated on a size of 20 by 26 inches. (17, 72, 334)
basket cloth
A fancy weave of cloth, usually a better grade of buckram with a pattern similar to the wicker work in baskets. In the first decades of the 20th century it was used to some extent in edition binding. (256, 264)
bast fibers
Strong woody fibers obtained from both the phloem and pericycle of various plants, and used in the manufacture of paper. Bast fibers, which include those of hemp, jute, mitsumata, and ramie, among others, are generally thinner than cotton fibers but their tubes have thicker walls than does cotton. Bast fibers are also generally stiffer and stronger than cotton fibers. (17, 42, 198)
bathbrick
Powdered brick used in dusting the GOLD CUSHION before laying on the GOLD LEAF for cutting. Its purpose is to prevent the leaf from sticking to the cushion. (130, 335)
batik
A cloth consisting of a dyed fabric of which parts which are not intended to be colored are protected by wax, which is later removed. Batik is used for covering books, particularly in the area of Indonesia where the technique originated, and also as a novelty in other areas. (332)
bating
A process which is usually defined as "reducing" or "removing." The basic purposes of DELIMING and bating are to remove calcium hydroxide (or other alkali) from the skin, to lower pH, and, of great importance, to treat the skin substance with proteolytic enzymes so as to obtain desired grain appearance in the finished leather. Bating also serves to impart softness, stretch, and flexibility to the leather, while at the same time providing the basis for a clean, smooth grain by loosening scud consisting of hair roots, pigment materials and grease. It also eliminates all traces of the firm, plumped, and swollen state of the skin induced by the alkaline unhairing liquors by bringing the skin into a soft, fallen condition. Today bating is employed mainly in tanning light leathers, such as those used in bookbinding, where drape, flexibility, and softness of handle are of primary importance. The origin of bating is somewhat obscure but probably dates back to the time when LIMING was not a common practice. It may have been originated by a tanner who noticed that skins badly soiled with dung often produced a softer, stretchier, silkier leather. As recently as the early years of the present century, the process of bating consisted of immersing the delimed skins in water at a temperature of 35-40° C., and then adding a liquid paste of pigeon or hen dung. The skins were run in this liquor until they acquired a particularly soft, flaccid and silky handle. The finished leather was found to have a very smooth, clean flat, flexible grain and was very soft and stretchy. Considerable variations in time, temperature and quantities were used for various types of leather. The effect of bating was produced by enzymes, which, under appropriate conditions of temperature and pH, are capable of dissolving and digesting some of the protein constituents of the skin. In a properly controlled process they are given only sufficient time for further removal of undesirable interfibrillary proteins, or to modify or weaken those fiber structures which, by binding the collagen fibers tightly together, would cause the grain to be wrinkled and the resultant leather to have no stretch. Today bating is accomplished by the the use of enzymes extracted from animal tissue, e.g., the pancreas of swine or sheep, or from microorganisms such as molds and bacteria, called respectively pancreatic and bacterial bates. (248, 275, 291, 306, 363)
batwing skiver
A bookbinder's expression for the thinnest SKIVER produced. It is made from the flesh split of sheepskin, and was at one time used for linings and title labels for law and similar books. (91, 274)
Baumé
Baumé hydrometer
A hydrometer for measuring the density of liquid and gum solutions, named after its inventor, Antoine Baumé. The Baumé scale is either of two arbitrary hydrometer scales, one for liquids heavier than water and the other for liquids lighter than water, that indicate specific gravity in degrees. The calculation (in the United States) for liquids heavier than water is: 60° 145 Specific gravity at --- F = --- 60° 145 -° Baumé and for liquids lighter than water: 60° 140 Specific gravity at --- F = --- 60° 130 +° Baumé Slightly different conversions are used in other countries or in specific industries. (179, 362)
bead
1. An old American term for HEADBAND. 2. A small twist formed when twisting the silk or cotton in headbanding. 3. A fore-edge clasp made of cat gut and beads, used to keep vellum bindings tightly closed. See also: CLASPS. (83, 250, 261)
beamhouse operations
The processes in leather manufacture that take place following curing and preceding the actual tannage of the skin. These processes include some or all of the following: SOAKING (1), LIMING, UNHAIRING, SCUDDING, FLESHING, DELIMING, BATING (or PUERING), DRENCHING, and PICKLING, not necessarily always in the order given. The skin may also be split before tanning. The principal objectives of beamhouse operations are to rid the stock of substances not wanted in the finished leather, notably the class of proteins known as keratin, and to put the skins into the proper chemical and physical condition for subsequent processing. To produce satisfactory leather, beamhouse operations must be carried out in such a manner that no damage is done to the fibrous (collagen) part of the skin that is converted into leather, nor to its internal structure. The term derives from the "beam," a convex wooden slab sloping upward from the floor, over which the raw stock is placed for trimming, fleshing, unhairing, or scudding by hand. (248, 363)
beater
A machine used in papermaking. It consists essentially of a tank, usually provided with a partition or "mid-feather," that contains a heavy roll designed to revolve against a bedplate. Both roll and bedplate can be fitted with horizontal metal bars set on edge. In operation, the pulp material in a water slurry circulates between the roll and bedplate and is rubbed, cut, macerated, and separated into a fibrous mass for further processing into paper. Sometimes fillers, loadings, dyes, etc., are added to the stock in the beater. Some authorities contend that the beater, introduced in 1670, was partially responsible for the decline in quality of paper, as miniscule iron particles, breaking away from the sides or working parts of the machine, entered the paper and caused it to deteriorate. See also: REFINER. (17, 58)
beater sized
A paper which has been sized by means of materials added to the BEATER, or if not the beater, to the pulp before sheet formation, as contrasted to paper that has been SURFACE SIZED, or TUB SIZED. (17)
beating
1. A hand operation of flattening the leaves or sections of a book before sewing, the purpose of which is to compress or, in the process of rebinding, to remove the backing shoulders. See: KNOCKING OUT THE GROOVE. Books are seldom beaten today. See: BUNDLING (1); NIPPING (1); SMASHING. 2. The process of swelling and separating the fibers and fibrils of rags, wood pulp, etc., either batchwise or in a BEATER, or by passage through a REFINER. (261, 350)
beating hammer
A heavy, short-handled hammer, with a bell-shaped face, used in beating the leaves and sections of a book so as to flatten and compress them. Such hammers generally weigh 10 to 14 pounds, and sometimes even up to 16 pounds. The introduction of the ROLLING MACHINE (1827) made the beating hammer virtually obsolete. (172, 236)
beating stone
A marble or litho stone, or a flat plate of iron, set in a frame filled with sand, on which the leaves or sections of books are beaten. (261)
bed
The base of a standing (or similar) press, on which books are placed and toward which the PLATEN descends.
Bedford, Francis
1800-1884
An English bookbinder whose work was considered to be unsurpassed by any of his contemporaries. Bedford worked for Charles Lewis until the latter's death in 1836, and then with John Clarke until 1850 when he started his own business. Bedford copied earlier Venetian bindings, with twisted or Saracenic ornaments, as well as later Veneto-Lyonese bindings common in England during the reign of Elizabeth 1. He also produced many imitations of the mosaics of ANTOINE MICHEL PADELOUP. (347)
Bedford style
Hand-stained bindings produced from a leather sometimes referred to as "fair calf" (a bark tanned calfskin), washed over frequently with a weak solution of potassium carbonate (K2CO3), and exposed to light. The staining process took as long as 6 months. In addition to the potassium carbonate, copperas (ferrous sulfate—FeSO4), also known as "green vitroil," was used to produce a particular effect. The carbonate gave a warm brown-toned sprinkle, the sulfate gave a gray, and the two together gave a black. Cf: ETRUSCAN CALF. (94, 154, 236, 347)
beeswax
A wax obtained from the hives of bees, i.e., an animal wax. Beeswax is a complex substance secreted by the worker bees for the purpose of constructing honeycombs. The wax is obtained by melting the honeycomb structure, and then filtering the wax before it is allowed to set. Beeswax usually contains a number of mineral wax adulterants. The wax, which is often bleached by shredding it into thin flakes and setting it out in the sun, has a softening range of 62-66° C. It is used: 1) to lubricate the thread used in sewing books by hand; 2) with LANOLIN and other substances for LEATHER DRESSINGS. In the latter use it is considered valuable by some conservationists because, as it is harder than most other waxes, it supplies body to the dressing at a reasonably low softening temperature, and also provides a polished or glossy finish which some find desirable; its use, however, as well as that of any wax on leather, is considered by a number of authorities to be detrimental to the permanence of leather; 3) as a base for the colors used in MARBLING; and 4) to provide a suitable surface for burnishing the gilt edges of books, although it is generally considered to be inferior to CARNAUBA WAX in this application, as carnauba is less likely to streak. (29, 291, 335)
beeswing
See: HIDE BUFFING.
Belgian hare
A long-legged breed of rabbit found in Belgium, the hind leg of which was the traditional implement used by gold beaters to apply finely powered gypsum (BRIME) to the goldbeater's skins. This was done to eliminate as much roughness as possible to allow the gold to expand freely and evenly over the skin. (29)
belly
The extreme left or right side of a complete hide, removed by cutting the hide along a line parallel to the spine and at such a distance from it as to remove approximately 23% of the total area of the hide for the two bellies. The belly includes the front and hind shank. The line of cutting is determined more accurately for any individual hide by noting the change in feel from the denser structure of the crop to the looser structure of the belly. (61, 363)
belly grain
The tanned, outer grain side split from a BELLY.
benched
An obsolete term referring to a book prepared for sewing or some other forwarding operation. It was also applied to the process of flattening the backing ridge of a section. See: KNOCKING OUT THE GROOVE. (164, 256)
bench knife
Two blades, the upper of which is curved and fitted with a handle, while the lower is drilled and countersunk so that it can be bolted to the bench. Bench knives are made in various sizes to cut from 16 to 42 inches. They are useful for cutting lightweight board, but are not as heavy or efficient as the BOARD CUTTER. (66)
bench sewing
An obsolete term applied to sewing a book through the folds, the significance being that the sewing was done on a SEWING FRAME, or bench.
Bentonite
A claylike mineral consisting largely of montmorillonite, and characterized by its high absorptive power and active colloidal properties. It is usually dark, dull, and powdery, but waxy on freshly cut surfaces. Its color varies from yellowish-green to nearly black. Bentonites are products of the change of volcanic ash, and are characterized by an alkaline oxide and alkaline earth content of 5 to 11. They are used as a filler in paper, for deinking paper pulp, for decreasing pitch problems in papermaking, and the like. The name derives from its discovery in Benton, Wyoming. (17)
benzene
A colorless, aromatic hydrocarbon (C6H6), usually obtained by the carbonization of coal, or from petroleum fractions by means of catalytic dehydrogenation. It is used to remove excess glair or grease from leather bindings. Although used extensively in the past. it is seldom used today because of its high flammability and extremely toxic nature. It is not to be confused with benzine (also used for the same purposes), which is a petroleum product obtained by distillation.
bergamot
A pear-shaped fruit (Citris bergania), the rind of which yields a pungent oil, used at one time as a preservative for paste. (371)
beta cellulose
That part of a cellulosic material which will dissolve in an alkaline solution under the conditions of th ALPHA CELLULOSE test, but which will reprecipitate if the alkaline solution is acidified. See also: GAMMA CELLULOSE (17)
between bands
The spaces on the spine of a book between the raised bands, either the ones on which the book is sewn or the false bands attached to give the outward appearance of genuine bands. For purposes of decoration, the spaces are referred to as panels. (94)
bevel
1. The angle of the bevel of BEVELED BOARDS. 2. The angle of cut of the edges of a panel or of an INLAY (4) or ONLAY.
beveled boards
beveled edges
The boards of a book, and especially the large, thick boards of heavy books. which have been cut or sanded on the outside or inside edge along the head, tail, and fore edge. The purpose of beveling is to remove the clumsy effect of thick boards and create a pleasing, tactile quality. The outside edges of boards usually were square until the 13th century; after that time, they were often beveled, sometimes steeply, or, in the case of decorated bindings, on a more gentle slope. The inside edges were also frequently beveled during the 15th century, particularly in Germany. When the outer edges of boards are beveled the edge along the spine is also often beveled on the inside, so that it follows the swelling of the spine. (58, 236)
bhabar
See: SABAI GRASS.
bibelot
An unusually small book. See also: MINIATURE BOOK.
Bible paper
A very lightweight, highly opaque paper, used primarily for low bulk books, such as Bibles, dictionaries, etc. Its basis weight generally ranges from 14 to 30 pounds (25 X 38—500). Bible paper of a basis weight of 20 pounds bulks up to 1,100 sheets per inch. The paper is generally produced from bleached chemical wood pulps, often with the addition of mixes of linen and/or cotton fiber, along with rag pulps, flax, and the like. Bible paper is heavily loaded with titanium oxide or other high grade pigments to improve opacity. Other important characteristics, other than printability, include strength, good folding endurance, and permanence. The term "Bible paper" is sometimes used with reference to any book paper having a basis weight of 30 pounds or less. See also: INDIA PAPER. (17, 58, 365)
Bible style
A style of binding at one time applied to all flexible, round-cornered, leather bookbindings. See also: YAPP STYLE. (256)
bibliogenesis
Of or relating to the production of books.
bibliogony
Of or relating to the production of books. Also called "bibliogenesis."
bibliology
The scientific description of books from the earliest times to the present, including all of the materials and processes involved in their production.
bibliopedist
The craftsman or worker who binds books; a bookbinder. The term is most appropriately applied to one who binds books by hand.
bibliopegic
Of or relating to the binding of books.
bibliopegistic
Of, or relating to, a bookbinder, especially one who binds books by hand.
bibliopegy
The art or craft of binding books. The term is more appropriately applied to the craft of binding books by hand.
bid
A written, usually legally binding, offer of a bookbinder, generally the owner of a bindery, but sometimes an individual bookbinder, to bind the books of another for a certain price, either by the individual book or by lot. A bid may be negotiated in any of several manners, usually according to the wishes of the customer. The binder may quote a flat price for all materials submitted for binding, regardless of style or format; he may quote two prices, one for serial publications or serial-format materials and another price, usually lower, for monographs and similar materials; he may bid on all work according to the height of the trimmed and cased work, e.g., up to and including 8 inches, over 8 inches and including 10 inches, etc., usually with an additional charge for extra thickness, e.g., greater than 2 1/2 inches; he may quote a flat rate for materials according to type, i.e., textbooks, fiction, reference books, theses, etc.; or, he may quote according to both height and format, e.g., 8, 10, 12 inches, etc., serials, 8, 10, 12 inches, etc., monographs, and so on. A bid may also include a stipulation (and a quote) of extra charges, as for example, hand sewing, pockets, stubbing, scoring, guarding, etc. In extra (hand) binding, on the other hand, the binder will generally quote an estimated price for the individual book, or for a specified group of books, with the understanding that the final price (which to a great degree will depend on the amount of time spent on each book) may be higher or lower. Assuming there is no decrease in the quality of the binding provided, and that the binder adheres faithfully to the specifications, the advantage of a bid situation is that the library may enjoy lower prices for its binding. The disadvantages, however, probably outweigh any monetary saving. Bookbinding, whether by a company or an individual, is essentially a service and not a commodity, and a successful binding program, i.e., one that is designed to preserve a collection over the long run, depends more on mutual cooperation and recognition as to the purpose of the library, as well as what the binder can and cannot do, than on any possible savings resulting from a low bid.
bight
The length of a single stitch in a machine-sewn book.
bind
See: BIND ALL; BIND AS IS; BIND FROM SHEETS; BIND IN; BOOKBINDING.
bind all
An instruction to the binder to bind a volume, usually a serial publication, with title page, index, advertisements, or any other material attached.
bind "as is"
An instruction to the binder to bind material in the order, or in the condition, in which it is received from the library, regardless of any seeming imperfections, e.g., a missing issue of a serial, a missing title leaf, etc.
binder
1. One who binds a book; a bibliopegist, or bookbinder. 2. A looseleaf binder (or notebook). 3. A material used to cause other materials to bond, or adhere, or, in papermaking, to cause fibers to bond, coatings to adhere, etc. 4. An adhesive substance, usually of liquid or molten form, used to create adhesion between aggregates, globules, etc. It is distinguished from an ADHESIVE in that it performs an internal adhesive function rather than a surface adhesive function. (17, 142, 309)
binder's block
See: BINDER'S BRASS.
binder's board
The wood, pasted paper, single- or multiple-ply sheets, or other base stock, for the covers of any bound or cased book, i.e., any book in hard covers. Boards, in one form or another, have been used to cover and thereby protect the leaves of codices since the earliest times of bookbinding. Although PASTEBOARD (1) was used very early in the Near East, in Europe, until about 1500, boards were nearly always made of wood (usually oak), hence the name. These wooden boards varied greatly in thickness, even up to one inch, although it is entirely possible that very thick boards were designed to contain relics, as well as to cover the book. The use of wooden boards began to decline in favor of pasteboards during the first quarter of the 16th century, and in time paper "boards" virtually replaced wood entirely, except in certain novelty or specialty uses. Boards made of tarred rope, sailcloth, netting, and the like, came into use in England for more expensive bindings sometime around the beginning of the 18th century, and continued to be employed extensively until World War Il, or for sometime thereafter, when they became very expensive and difficult to procure. These so-called tar, semi-tar, and rope boards, which are generally referred to as MILLBOARD (1), are very hard and stiff. The binder's boards of today are usually made of paper and are available in many weights and thicknesses. Machine-made boards are generally available in four qualities: 1) machine boards, including a wide range of boards made from paper on a cylinder or Fourdrinier machine. These are usually single-ply, solid boards made to full thickness in one operation. They generally range in thickness from 0.030 to 0.300 inch; 2). STRAWBOARD, which originally was the yellowish board from Holland (and was sometimes called Holland board), but which now represents a generic board made from straw or similar material; 3) CHIPBOARD, made from waste paper, wood chips, and other inexpensive materials; and 4) RAG BOARD, made from rag stock. In terms of permanence, the various types of boards used today are probably of equal quality. Even old strawboard, which would appear to be the least permanent of all, shows little deterioration with age, even after a hundred years. Its characteristic brittleness is a physical property of this type of board and has little to do with deterioration. That boards in general deteriorate very little may be due largely to the fact that the boards of a book are generally, though not always, completely covered over and are thus largely protected from atmosphere, light, and other potentially damaging effects. It is perhaps interesting to note that, in terms of permanence (as the term is generally understood), strawboard and pasteboard, possibly due to the absence of metallic impurities, are probably more "permanent" than the hard and tough millboard. The weight (thickness) of the boards used in bookbinding should be appropriate to the size and weight of the volume being bound, and will generally range in thickness between 0.060 inch and, in the case of very large volumes, 0.205 inch in thickness. See also: LAMINATED BOARD. (143, 162, 180, 198, 230, 236)
binder's brass
A brass block engraved in relief with letters or a design, and used for blocking the covers of books, by means of either a hand-operated press or an automatic blocking machine. Cf: ZINCO. (307)
binder's cloth
A cloth binding of any age, which is not the product of EDITION BINDING. The term was most commonly used to indicate collections of pamphlets, French novels, etc., which the collector did not have bound in leather. Such bindings are almost always blocked from type or standard dies, and, if decorated at all, usually in an ordinary manner. Exceptions date from the earliest years of edition binding in cloth, when materials and style were still in the early stages of development. (69)
binder's record
The record kept by a binder, for the purposes of maintaining an accurate record of the various materials received from different customers. Such records generally include instructions for binding or special attention, including the manner in which similar materials were bound in the past, color of covering material, type of covering material, recorded size, lettering format, style and size of type, and the like. (24, 259)
binder's stamp
1. The stamp or label applied to a book indicating the bindery that bound the book, and sometimes the month and year in which the book was bound. It is generally located on the inside tail edge of the lower cover. This method of signing a bookbinding first became fashionable in the 20th century. 2. See: BINDER'S BRASS (261)
binder's ticket
A small engraved or printed label, usually found on the upper outside corner of one of the front flyleaves, giving the name (and usually the address) of the bookbinder. Tickets were used from the early 18th century until about 1825, but were not often seen in England until about 1780. The use of the ticket gave way to the practice by binders of lettering their names in gilt, blind, or ink, usually on the bottom turn-in of either upper or lower board. This record was sometimes referred to as a "name pallet." A variation of the ticket, usually printed, was used by some edition binders during the 19th century, and was usually located on the inside tail edge of the lower cover. (69)
binder's title
The form in which the title of a book appears on the spine or cover, the implication being that the title on the outside may differ, usually by being abbreviated, from the title as it appears on the title page.
binder's waste
1. See: WASTE SHEET (1). 2. Scraps of cloth, leather, board, etc., too small to be classed by themselves. 3. The scrap paper resulting from the trimming of books, and which, being clean, white, and unprinted, commands a premium price in the waste paper market.
bindery tapes
The tapes used to cover the binding edge of checkbooks, composition books, pads or tablets of writing paper, scrapbooks, and the like. They are also used as gussets for file folders, and as reinforcements for the punched edges of loose-leaf notebook paper. Bindery tapes make use of a variety of backing materials, ranging from Holland, cambric, and gusset cloths, through strong latex-impregnated materials to embossed, coated kraft papers. The tapes are made in a variety of colors, and most are applied automatically on stripping machines. The adhesive used on these tapes must be of reasonably high quality and strength, must have a moderate amount of working life after wetting, and must be capable of bonding quickly after application. Also called "gum stripping tapes." (309)
bindery warehouse
The unit or division, usually in an edition bindery, where the simpler forms of binding, i.e., pamphlets, single periodical issues, as well as other miscellaneous operations, such as cutting, folding, stapling, etc., take place, as contrasted with the main bindery, where the more elaborate styles of binding occur, generally those involving sewing. Many finishing operations, e.g., blocking, are common to both. The term is more prevalent in Great Britain than in the United States. (58)
bind from sheets
Bookbinding which originates from the flat or folded sheets, usually the former, as received from the printer. Binding from sheets is carried out principally in edition binderies, although pamphlet binding, as well as blankbook binding, might also be considered as such. A book to be bound by hand will generally be in better binding condition if received in sheets (or gatherings), but this occurs only in rare instances today. (83)
bind in
An instruction to the bookbinder to bind into the book separate supplementary material, as designated by the customer.
binding
1. The style in which a book is bound, e.g., edition binding, library binding, etc. 2. The covers of a bound book. 3. The finished work resulting from the processes involved in binding a book. 4. The concept of securing the leaves or sections of a publication so as to keep them in proper order and to protect them. 5. The style in which a book is decorated, e.g., fanfare style, cottage style, etc.
binding agent
An intermediary between a bookbinding establishment, usually a library bindery, and the customer, although not directly employed by either. The binding agent is a more-or-less independent salesman who solicits business for a commission.
binding before purchase
A term generally considered to mean the purchase of books by a library in sheets, to be bound according to the library's specifications before they receive any wear, and while the paper is still fresh, clean and unwrinkled. Binding before purchase is rare today, except for PRE-LIBRARY BOUND publications, which is not strictly the same thing. (25)
binding book
A book used by a library, in which the particulars of materials sent out for binding or rebinding are entered. It may vary in the information recorded, from a simple list of titles to full bibliographical information and binding instructions. The binding book has been largely superseded by the BINDING SLIP. (94)
binding edge
The edge of the gathered leaves or sections that is sewn, or otherwise secured. The binding edge of books published in the Western world is traditionally the left edge of a recto, corresponding to the right edge of a verso, but it may be any edge, the most common variant being the head.
binding margin
See: INNER MARGIN.
binding post
A metal post, generally threaded, used to secure pre-punched loose leaves between stiff or semi-flexible covers. Binding posts, which may be adaptable to expansion, are frequently considered a permanent form of binding. See also: POST BINDER (256, 274)
binding priorities
The ranking or ordering of different types of library materials to be bound or rebound. Priorities may be based on a variety of factors, including historical or research value, age, condition, use, monetary value, special or local interest, format, or combinations thereof. The establishment of priorities frequently, if not usually, implies that the library: 1) does not have sufficient funds to bind everything it acquires; or 2) does not consider it necessary to bind or rebind everything. An example of a system of priorities would be: 1) books of value, or of special interest to the library, that should be bound or rebound without regard to cost; 2) books of permanent interest but of no special monetary value, that should be library bound, but for which the best work would be too expensive; and 3) books of temporary interest that need to be held together and kept in readable condition for occasional reference or short-term hard usage. (84, 208, 326)
binding process
The two major divisions of BOOKBINDING, which are FORWARDING and FINISHING (1). Forwarding entails the binding operations, which are the work of the bookbinder; finishing includes decoration and embellishment of the outside (and sometimes the insides of the boards) surfaces of the covers (including the creation of the design), and is the work of the artist. Both operations may be, and frequently are, especially in the United States and Great Britain, performed by the same person.
binding program
The policies and procedures of a library relating to the care and preservation of its book collection, insofar as such procedures relate to library binding. A sound binding program is based on four fundamental factors: 1) a set of defined procedures within the library, with assignment of authority and responsibility, preferably to one person; 2) a binding budget adequate not only for the binding of new acquisitions but for rebinding in a systematic manner; 3) written binding specifications designed to provide for the preservation of the book collection, based on the purposes and goals of the library; and 4) an agreement or contract with a library binder of recognized competence. (208)
binding quirewise
A method of sewing a book, in which the sections are placed one inside another and then sewn or saddle stitched through the combined back folds. (179)
binding record
bindery record
A record of books sent to the binder. This may consist of circulation cards, duplicate binding slips, or special records kept in a book.
binding schedules
The times of pick-up and delivery by the binder from and to the library. Aside from the method of transportation, which should be by means of the binder's own truck, or at least on a non-commingled basis on contract, and not by common carrier, the binding schedule depends largely on five factors: 1) when the volume can best be spared from the library; 2) the most convenient time for preparing books for binding; 3) when the binder can bind books with the least delay; 4) when the library can accumulate a sufficient number of volumes to make up a shipment of reasonable size; and 5) when the library is in the best position to pay for the work done. 131)
binding schemes
A term at one time used to describe an organized scheme carried through an individual's or library's book collection, in which, for example, all books on history were bound in red, technical books in black, fiction in brown, poetry in buff, books relating to the sea in blue, books on travel in orange, and so on. Such schemes have declined in popularity since the turn of the century, and particularly since the development of systematic classification schemes. See also: BRIGHTER BINDING. (310)
binding slip
A card, slip, sheet, or other form of written instructions sent to the bindery with each volume, or set of volumes, specifying the binding requirements for that volume or set. The typical binding slip generally specifies the author (if any), title (sometimes binding specifications abbreviated), classification number, other bibliographical information, binding style (unless previously agreed upon), color of covering material, as well as any peculiarities of the book that should be brought to the attention of the binder, such as margins, condition of the paper, foldouts, loose material (for pockets), etc. A multiple form provides identical copies for the binder, as well as the library, and serves as verification for the work specified.
binding specifications
The description of the materials, manufacturing processes, and standards of workmanship to be employed in binding books for a library or similar institution. Material specifications include the quality and weight (or size) of thread, paper, cloth (or leather), adhesives, mending tissues, gold, foil, inks, etc., of such things as endpapers, guards, stubs, hinges, inlays, linings, tapes, sewing thread. covering materials, and the like. Manufacturing specifications include collation, preparation for sewing, special checking, reinforcing, removing back folds, scoring, construction and attachment of endpapers, trimming, gluing-up, blocking, casing-in, inspection, etc. Workmanship specifications include sewing, rounding and backing, adhesion of materials, turn-ins, squares, corners, trimming and the like. Specifications, it should be noted, are not intended to instruct the binder in how to bind a book, but only to insure an acceptable end product. (16, 25, 83)
binding variations
Differences in the bindings of books issued in the same edition by a publisher. The differences might include color or type of cloth, blocking, etc. Such variations may stem from a number of manufacturing causes, especially if all copies printed are not bound at the same time, or some are rebound, as in REMAINDER BINDING. Variations may also result from unsatisfactory storage conditions. (69, 156)
birch (bark)
The bark of the common European birch (Betula verrucosa) or (B. pubescens), used in leather manufacture, particularly in Russia, for hundreds of years. The outer bark, which peels off easily, is not used; it is the inner bark from which the tannin, in the amount of 10 to 15%, and 11% soluble non-tans, is extracted. Older trees, those 50 to 60 years of age, yield the richest tannin. Used alone, birch produces a pliable, leather of a yellowish-brown color; it is, however, more often mixed with some other tannin, often willow bark. In addition to tannin, the oil obtained from the bark is used to dress the leather, imparting to RUSSIA LEATHER its characteristic odor. Other species of birch have been used to a limited extent in North America and India. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
birch broom
A "broom" made of strips of birch wood and used for stirring the MARBLING SIZE. A birch broom has been the traditional implement for this operation, but whether it was because of the quantities of water used, the screening action of the birch strips, or some other reason, is not clear. (97, 335)
bite
1. The ability of an adhesive to penetrate or dissolve the uppermost layer of the adherends. 2. That quality in paper which causes it to take ink, pencil, or printing impressions readily. 3) In engraving, the corrosion of the metal by acid, i.e., the action of acid dissolving away superfluous metal. (138, 139)
bites
An informal expression sometimes used to indicate pieces of paper torn from the margin of a leaf, so-called because of their occasional resemblance to "bites."
black book
An obsolete term applied to any of the various books, usually of a devotional nature, so-called from the style of their type, the color of their bindings, the nature of their contents, or combinations thereof. They also frequently had BLACK EDGES. (274)
black edges
The edges of a book that have been blackened by sponging them with ink, followed by ivory black, lampblack, or antimony mixed with paste. Although used extensively in the 19th century on devotional and funereal publications, they are uncommon today. (152, 241)
blacking the squares
The process of coloring the edges and squares of the boards of a book, as well as the headcaps, with a black pigment, such as vinegar-black mixed with gum arabic, so as to enhance the effect of tooling in blind. The technique is uncommon today. (152, 241)
black lead
Commercial powdered graphite, which, when mixed with water, glair, and (sometimes) Armenian bole, is applied to the edges of books before gilding. See also: GILT EDGES. (335, 371)
blacks
1. An obsolete term for a grade of book cloth of a "common" quality, dyed throughout. 2. A general term applied to black papers used for covers, photograph albums, and the like. (256)
black step
A heavy line, 6 points thick and about 24 points long, which appears on the back of a folded section of a book after the printed sheet is folded. The collective black steps run from the head to the tail of the gathered sections, generally about 24 points below each other. When the book is gathered the black steps appear as a diagonal line running from head to tail across the back of the text block, and any missing or misplaced section immediately becomes obvious because the black step is broken. Also called "back mark," "collating mark," and "quad mark." (156)
blanc fixe
See: BARIUM SULFATE.
blankbook
Originally, a book in which the printing was limited to page headings or divisions. The page was generally blank or ruled and was intended to receive writing. Today, blankbooks include a variety of items, including account books, albums, scrapbooks, exercise and manuscript books, etc. Blankbooks intended for the accounting of court records, etc., are generally ruled, horizontally and/or vertically, to facilitate writing. Since in most cases the information recorded is considered to be of permanent value, the paper and binding of the book must be of superior quality. Called "account book" in Great Britain. See also: BLANKBOOK BINDING. (227, 274)
blankbook binding
A style of binding for books meant to be written in and which, therefore, must lie flat at any place the book is open. Blankbook binding is one of the principal subdivisions of STATIONERY BINDING and differs greatly from the other major nit of binding, LETTERPRESS BINDING. One of the major differences is that blankbooks, or account books, as they are also called, are rounded but not backed, having instead a SPRING-BACK, which, in conjunction with the LEVERS, causes the spine of the book to "spring" up when the book is opened, thus giving full access to the gutter of the opposing pages. The best blankbook binding is very durable, with sewing on wide bands of webbing, rather than tapes, the ends of which are secured between split boards. The books also have heavy linings and strongly reinforced endpapers, called "joints" in a blankbook. In addition, it is not unusual for the folios to be sewn first to heavy cloth guards before being sewn to the webbings. Additional strength is sometimes imparted by hubs on the spine (which also protect the lettering) and bands either over or blankbook frame under the covering material. Although formerly always covered in leather, many blankbooks are now covered in heavy duck or canvas. Called "account-book binding" in Great Britain. (58, 320, 339, 343)
blankbook frame
An obsolete term for a sewing frame designed to be used when tapes instead of cords are used in sewing. See also: SEWING FRAME. (115)
blankbook paper
See: LEDGER PAPER.
blank cover
A term sometimes applied to the covers of a bound book that are not blocked or ornamented in any manner.
blanking
1. The process of blocking book cloths that are patterned, i.e., grained. Before the use of hot dies and foils eliminated the need for blanking, the cloth was struck with the uninked die, which flattened out the pattern or grain of the cloth, leaving a smooth surface to take the ink on the subsequent strike. 2. A term sometimes used incorrectly with reference to blinding. See: BLIND TOOLING. (91, 365)
blank leaves
The unprinted leaves at the front and back of a book. They may be an integral part of the book as received from the publisher (printer's flyleaves), or they may be added by the bookbinder (binder's flyleaves). They are not necessarily part of the endpapers. (69)
blank rolling
A method of sprinkling a FLESHER, in which an iron solution is applied to the leather and rolled in. The nap is then restored by brushing.
blank tooling
See: BLIND TOOLING.
bleach
1. A chemical, usually an oxidizing or reducing agent, used to whiten or increase the brightness of a material, e.g., paper or paper pulp. See also: BLEACHING (1) 2. A solution of chlorine or a similar chemical. 3. To whiten or increase the brightness of a material, or to remove stains from paper. See: BLEACHING (2).
bleached groundwood paper
A paper manufactured from groundwood pulp which has been bleached by means of a suitable chemical, e.g., sodium peroxide, zinc hydrosulfite, etc, or a combination of chemicals. It is substantially brighter than unbleached groundwood paper and is not significantly less bright than paper produced from bleached sulfate or sulfite pulps. (17, 72)
bleached sulfate paper
A class of paper generally used in grades of white, as well as for boards requiring strength. The pulp is fully bleached with chlorine dioxide, or the dioxide plus peroxide, with or without hypochlorite, in multistage bleaching operations. Its high brightness is attainable with strength characteristics not substantially lower than that of an unbleached chemical pulp. (17, 72)
bleached sulfite paper
A paper which has been bleached in one stage by means of peroxide or hypochlorite, or in a multistage operation using peroxide and/or chlorine dioxide. The paper has high brightness with good stability. (17, 72)
bleaching
1. The process of treating pulps used in papermaking with chemicals to alter their color so that the pulp and the resulting paper will have greater brightness. Such bleaching is usually accompanied by partial removal of noncellulosic materials, e.g., LIGNIN. 2. The process of chemically treating archival materials in order to remove stains, discoloration, foxing, etc., and/or to restore brightness. Both oxidizing—i.e., chemicals which take up electrons—and reducing—i.e., chemicals which give up electrons—chemicals are used, the former much more extensively than the latter. Chemicals which are, or have been, used include CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE, CHLORAMINE T. , CHLORINE DIOXIDE, FORMALDEHYDE, HYDROGEN PEROXIDE, POTASSIUM METABISULFITE, SODIUM CHLORATE, SODIUM CHLORITE, SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE, and SODIUM PEROXIDE. 3. The process of lightening the color of a vegetable-tanned leather by means of the removal of the oxidized tannins and insoluble matter from the outer surfaces of the skin, usually by treatment with a solution of sodium carbonate, washing, and then treatment with diluted acid. Chrome-tanned leathers are usually bleached by treating the skin with acid solutions of syntans and at times by precipitating white pigments in the grain layer of the leather to impart a bleached appearance. 4. The destructive effects of chemical agents on water colors, inks, fugitive colors, etc. 5. The generally undesirable and destructive effect of natural and artificial light on archival materials, especially cloth and leather bookbindings. (62, 77, 218, 320, 323)
bleaching powder
See: CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE.
bled
The printed image, plates, or illustrations of a book that have been cut into during trimming, e.g., BLEED BORDER, BLEED ILLUSTRATION.
bleed
1. To trim the edges of a book to the extent that part of the letterpress is removed. 2. A printed image which runs off the edge of a page. 3. The process of deliberately trimming so as to "bleed" a page. See also: BLEED BORDER; BLEED ILLUSTRATION. (82, 365)
bleed border
A heavy border on a printed page or sheet, especially on the cover of a pamphlet or booklet, printed in such a position that part of it is cut away in trimming.
bleed illustration
An illustration that runs to one or more edges of the page, leaving no margin. If the bleeding is to be accomplished by means of cropping, the illustration must be designed so that nothing of importance is removed by trimming. When an illustration occupies an entire page, it is said to bleed on three sides, i.e., head, tail, and fore edge, and run flush to the gutter. See also: CENTER SPREAD. (131)
bleeding
1. See: BLEED. 2. The removal of color from a paper or paper pulp due to the action of water or another liquid, which dissolves the coloring matter. 3. Discoloration of the surface of a paper due to the migration of residual oils. 4. The tendency of colored papers to stain contiguous leaves, usually due to the presence of water or moisture of some kind. 5. The diffusion of uncombined materials from the interior of leather to the grain surface where they may contaminate other materials or mar the appearance of the leather. This usually occurs at elevated temperatures and is commonly designated as staining. (17, 72, 325, 363)
blesbock
A South African antelope, Damaliscus albifrons, the skin of which has been used to produce a bold-grained leather, in imitation of SEALSKIN.
blind blocking
The process of lettering or decorating a book with BINDER'S BRASS or ZINCO only, i.e., without gold leaf, ink, or foil. (307)
blind finishing
Any of the several techniques of decorating a binding by tooling without the use of gold, or other leaf metals, or coloring materials. Blind finishing includes: 1) impressing the surface of the covering material with a heated tool (See: BLIND TOOLING); 2) embossing leather from the flesh side while wet, with the pattern being outlined by an indented line; and 3) cutting the leather so as to create a design in relief. See: CUIR-CISELÉ.
blind impressions
Virtually the same process as BLIND BLOCKING, except that it generally applies to hand tooling. In blind impressions, there are generally two impressions of the tool or letter, the first made through the design or lettering on paper with a warm tool and a second done directly on the impression. This second step assures an evenness and straightness of the impression, and, because the impression through the paper is larger, the second makes the final impression the correct size. (161)
blind lines
1. The impressed lines on the spine of a leather binding along each side of the raised bands. Such lines are usually impressed with a two-line PALLET (1). 2. The blind lines made by a FILLET (1) without the use of leaf metal or foil. (335)
blind-stamped panel
blind-stamped binding
A form of decoration on the covers of a binding impressed by means of an engraved stamp (bearing a complete design) on the dampened leather. Virtually all early plates were cut intaglio (with a three dimensional effect and not as a two dimensional printing block), the resulting image on the cover being in relief. Panels were still being used in (German) bookbinding until well into the 18th century. The art originated in the Low Countries, and was practiced there from the 14th century on. Characteristic designs consisted of animals in circles or loops of foliage. The art flourished in France from about 1488 to 1528; in Germany, extensive use was made of blind-stamped panels on covers of pigskin bindings, mainly after 1550. The blind-stamped panel was in use in England from about 1480 to 1580, but it was not really popular until about 1500. The most used motifs included the royal arms and heraldic devices. Rectangular panels made with a single stamp continued in use until about 1623. Because of the great pressure required to impress a complete design, a standing press of some kind must have been used. The most commonly used leathers for these bindings were calfskin and pigskin. (140, 166, 236)
blind stamping
A term originally used with reference to stamping a leather cover with small, unheated tools that were cut intaglio so that the impression was in relief. See also: BLIND TOOLING. (236)
blind tooling
A method of decorating a book in which impressions are made in the covering material, usually leather or tawed skin, by means of heated tools, pallets, rolls, fillets, or combinations of one or more of these. As the name implies, blind tooling does not entail the use of leaf metal, foil, or any other coloring material, with the possible exception of carbon, which is sometimes used to darken the impressions. The effect of blind tooling rests largely on the depth and uniformity of the impressions (which makes it unsuitable for use with hard covering materials) and the ability of the heated tool to produce a darkened color (see above)—factors which make leather, especially in the lighter shades, an ideal medium for this method of decoration. The critical aspects of the technique are the temperature of the tool and the degree of dampness of the leather. In general, the damper the leather the cooler the tool should be, and vice versa. In tooling leather blind, the surface is given a quick initial strike to "set" the leather in the impression. The tool is then impressed again and rocked slightly, which polishes and darkens the impression. When blind lines run across the spine of the book, polishing is accomplished by sliding a pallet along the lines; on the covers, where a fillet is used for long lines, it is fixed so that instead of rolling, it slides along the impression. Blind tooling has been used as a means of decorating books since the early days of bookbinding, and can be traced back to COPTIC BINDINGS of the 7th or 8th centuries, and even earlier. There is reason to believe that the technique was brought to Europe from the Mediterranean area about the same time as other Coptic techniques being used, possibly by imported craftsmen; however, little is known of blind-tooled bindings until the 12th century and early part of the 13th. In one form or another, the technique has been used continuously up to the present day, but during the 16th to 18th centuries, its use was more or less limited to inferior calf- and sheepskin bindings. Near the end of the 18th and during the early years of the 19th centuries blind tooling was often used on fine bindings in conjunction with gold. Also called "antique tooling." (94, 123, 130, 236, 335)
blind warbles
See: WARBLES.
blisters
1. Bubbles or pockets of air, water vapor, solvent vapor, etc., trapped between the board and PASTEDOWN of a book, causing the board paper to bulge, forming a blister. A blister effect may also be caused by a small mass of adhesive, which stretches the covering material, or by failure of the covering material to adhere properly, causing a protuberance or "blister" between board and covering material. 2. Defects in paper resulting from too rapid drying of the web or poor condition of the drying felts which allows air between the felt and web. Blisters are also defects in coated papers caused by too rapid expansion of moisture in the interior of the sheet when subjected to the high drying temperatures of web presses. (5, 17)
block
A piece of metal, without a handle, bearing an engraved or etched design and used in decorating the covers of a book. It is intended to be used in a press. See also: BLOCKING (1); BLOCKING PRESS. (82, 234)
block book
A book printed from cut blocks of wood. Although it is presumed that block books preceded the invention of printing from movable metal type, most of the extant examples of block books are from the period 1460 to 1480, i.e., subsequent to printing from metal types. Each block was cut for an entire page, and, in the earliest examples, each leaf was printed only on one side, usually with a thin, brownish ink. The spread of printing virtually eliminated the demand for this type of book but they continued to be printed until at least the end of the 15th century. These later examples were printed on both sides of the leaf with ordinary printing ink. Block books are essentially picture books, sometimes with a small amount of text, also cut in wood. (69, 140, 156)
blocking
1. The process or technique of impressing a design into the covering material of a book by means of a stamp or BLOCK having an engraved or etched surface. The term applies to the impressing of type, blocks, etc., with foil, leaf, etc., or without (BLIND BLOCKING). Since the area that can be blocked by hand is relatively small (about one square inch, or less), large areas are blocked using a BLOCKING PRESS. The permanency of the blocking, particularly when gold leaf is used, depends largely on the pressure applied by the craftsman, or the force of the blocking press, which drives the raised surfaces of the block or die into the covering material. Hand blocking may be done on curved or flat surfaces, while blocking by means of a press is generally done on flat surfaces only. 2. The surface tackiness that book cloths sometimes develop as they age. 3. An undesirable condition in which a dry adhesive film is reactivated by heat, pressure, moisture, etc., and adheres to a material in contact with it. (94, 179, 236, 276, 309)
blocking foil
A thin plastic film with a high vacuum deposit of gold or other metal and backed by a pressure-sensitive adhesive. White and colored pigments are also available. They are used in the same way as gold leaf, the impression being obtained by means of a heated die, block, type, etc. Blocking foils are used extensively in library and edition binding. (81, 92, 161)
blocking powder
A finely ground resin used in dusting over the impressions in silk and velvet before gold tooling. Such resins are used in lieu of GLAIR because moisture would stain the silk or velvet. The powder has the advantage of requiring only a moderately hot tool, whereas glair requires considerably more heat to make the gold adhere. Blocking powder, however, does not provide the solidity of adhesion to gold leaf that is obtainable with a liquid size; therefore, it is generally used only when a liquid size is impractical. (154)
blocking press
A press which heats blocks and impresses lettering. designs, etc., into the covers of books. In edition binding this is done automatically, gold or pigment foils being fed through the machine on a thin plastic BLOCKING FOIL. The blocking press is used for BLIND BLOCKING or ink blocking; heat is not required for the latter process. When gold leaf is used it is laid directly on the book cover. The blocking press first came into use in England in the period 1830-32 for gold blocking on book cloths. Before this time books were blocked with a block that was heated off the press and then laid on the cover and pressed. Also called "embossing press" and, in the United States, "stamping press." (107, 203, 236)
block printing
The process of printing from hand-carved blocks of wood or linoleum. Modern blocks, which are made up of relatively heavy lines and solid areas, are cut for relief printing, and are inked or colored only on the uncut surfaces. If printing in two or more colors is required, the colors can be applied and printed in one impression, printed in two or more impressions, or two or more blocks can be cut. In the early days of block printing, it was a common practice to print the outline of the design and then apply the colors by hand. The relatively soft surfaces of blocks of wood or linoleum limit the number of impressions that can be made. (234)
blood stone burnisher
See: BURNISHER(S) (1)
bloom
1. A deposit of ellagic acid formed in and on leathers tanned with vegetable tannins of the pyrogallol class, probably as a result of the action of enzymes native to the original source, i.e., bark, acorns, etc. Although bloom affects the physical properties of leather in that it increases weight yield, firmness, and water resistance, it is deposited in insoluble form and is not chemically combined with the fibers of the leather. Its presence at times gives an unsightly appearance to the leather. 2. A misty surface appearance in an illustration, caused by an excess of acid or too much drier in the ink. 3. The dulling film that sometimes appears on varnish and glossy paint films, particularly in industrial atmospheres. It usually consists of minute crystals of ammonium sulfate produced by the reaction between sulfur dioxide, ammonia, and oxygen in condensed moisture on the film. Bloom can appear on a freshly lacquered surface when rapid evaporation of the solvents causes the temperature of the surface to fall below the dew point. Moisture is deposited on the film, causing a limited precipitation of cellulose nitrate and giving the film a permanent cloudy appearance. (175, 195, 306, 363)
blotting paper
A completely unsized sheet of paper, generally used to take up excess ink from hand-written documents, letters, etc. It is also used to absorb moisture from freshly washed or deacidified book and manuscript papers, prints, maps, etc. It is often made from high grade rag or cotton linters, and also from chemical or mechanical wood pulps, or mixtures thereof. The paper is porous, bulky, and has a low finish and little strength. Basis weights generally range from 60 to 140 pounds (19 X 24—500). Aside from its use as an absorbent paper, it can be ground up, mixed with size, and used to fill in worm and other small holes in paper. (17, 316)
blue
blue sort
Hides and skins that have been chrome tanned but not finished. Such skins are usually called "in the blue," or "blue sort." (325)
blue agate marble
A cover marble, consisting of black coloring in large (united) drops, with blue streams down the boards uniting with the black. See also: GREEN AGATE MARBLE. (97, 152)
blue-and-gold edition
A format for volumes of poetry, essays, etc., popular in the United States in the 1870s. The covering cloth was blue and the edges were gilt. The books were small, measuring about 6 by 3 1/2 inches. (169)
blueprint paper
A paper produced from cotton fiber pulp, bleached chemical wood pulp, or combinations thereof, in basis weights of 12 to 30 pounds (17 X 22—500). It has a well-formed, fairly smooth surface, good wet tensile strength, and, although well-sized, uniform absorbency. Blueprint paper must not contain chemicals which might have an adverse effect on its sensitizing materials. The paper is sensitized by treating the base paper with chemicals, including potassium ferrocyanide, as well as with iron salts, such as the oxalates and tartrates. (17)
blue stormont marble
A marble pattern used for both endpapers and edges, consisting of a red vein with indigo fillers dotted with numerous small interstices in the form of a fine network. This pattern was popular during the first half of the 19th century, but was also used in the 18th. See also: STORMONT MARBLE. (97, 236)
board
A generic term for a stiff and thick "paper." The distinction between board and paper is somewhat vague; however, in general, board is heavier in basis weight, thicker, and stiffer than paper. Most sheets 0.012 or more inches in thickness are considered to be boards, while nearly all less than 0.006 inch are termed paper; most of those in between these dimensions are also classed as paper. Blotting paper, in excess of 0.012 inch, however, is still classed as paper, and liner board, although sometimes less than 0.012 inch thick, is classed as board. See also: BINDER'S BOARD. (17, 19, 42)
board cutter
A lever type of cutter mounted on a flat bed and used for cutting hard millboard, and similar materials. The bed is equipped with a movable gauge against which the stock is placed for accurate cutting, and a foot-operated clamp which secures the material for cutting. The blade usually has one or more counterweights at the end opposite the handle to help prevent the knife from falling accidently, and also to reduce the effort required to raise the blade. See also: BENCH KNIFE; ROTARY BOARD CUTTER. (66)
boarded leather
A leather which has been softened and the grain side of which has been lightly creased by the process of BOARDING (1).
boarding
1. A method of producing a design on the grain side of leather, as well as softening it, by means of a series of creases produced on the surface of the skin. Boarding is accomplished by folding the leather, grain side to grain side, and working the fold board knife across its surface. A straight or "willow" grain results when the skin is boarded on one direction, and a box or "cross" grain when it is also boarded at right angles to the first. Boarding a third time in a direction diagonal to the first two produces a pebbled-grain pattern. Boarding may be done by hand, using a cork-surfaced board called a GRAINING BOARD, the fold of the leather being rolled under the board, or, as is the usual case today, by means of a boarding machine, in which the leather is rolled between two cylinders, one covered with cork or rubber and the other with felt or rubber. 2. See: GRAINED UP. (306, 363)
board knife
1. A knife of elliptical shape attached to the arm of a hand-operated BENCH KNIFE. 2. One of the circular knives of a ROTARY BOARD CUTTER. (66)
board machine
See: CYLINDER MACHINE.
board paper
See: PASTEDOWN.
boards
1. A generic term for the pieces of wood, metal, or metal-edged wood used to assist in gripping books while in process of being bound. Such boards are used in pressing, backing, bundling, gilding, trimming, and other operations. 2. The state or condition of being IN BOARDS or OUT OF BOARDS. 3. See: BINDER'S BOARD.
bock
A leather made from the skin of a so-called Persian sheep, which is a sheep that has coarse hair instead of wool. It was used in the latter part of the 19th and early part of the 20th centuries as a substitute for goatskin. When finished and grained usually embossed) in imitation of MOROCCO, it was referred to as "bock morocco." (91, 256)
body paper
The foundation paper or board for finished papers, such as art, chromo, coated, gummed, and others, which are made by coating or treating with composition. (82)
body board
See BODY PAPER.
bolt
The folded edge at the head, tail, or fore edge of a section of an unopened book. Depending on location, it is known as a head bolt, tail bolt, or fore edge bolt. Bolts are generally located at the head and fore edge, but cannot be located at all three edges in any one section. The folded edge opposite the fore edge is not a "bolt," but a spine fold, or "last fold." Bolts are often opened quickly and with little care, resulting in ragged edges that are difficult to handle when turning leaves. A dull knife used carefully will result in a clean cut, while a knife that is too sharp is difficult to control and often cuts away from the bolt and into one or more leaves.
bolt knife
One of the two types of knives that can be used for cutting the edges of books with the PLOW. The bolt knife is fastened to the shoe of the plow, consequently its position cannot be changed, as can that of the SLIDING KNIFE. The sliding type is less expensive and easier to attach, and has almost completely superceded the bolt type.
bond
1. In adhesives, the process of joining two structures together, i.e., to create an assembly by means of adhesive linkage. 2. A form of insurance agreement under which a bonding company guarantees to pay a library within stated limits for any financial loss, or for failure of the binder to perform in accordance with the terms of the contract, i.e., to follow specifications, to charge the agreed-upon price, to return materials within the time specified in the contract, or to otherwise be found in default of the contract. 3. See: BOND PAPER. (309)
bonding strength
The resistance of paper, either coated or uncoated, to splitting or to the picking or lifting of its surface while being printed. (17)
bond paper
A grade of writing or printing paper, now only vaguely associated with bonds, legal documents, etc., i.e., where durability and permanence are required. Bond paper today is widely used for forms, invoices, etc., and is a strong, tough paper that can take stiff, hard ink that dries by oxidation rather than by penetration. Bonds are produced from cotton fiber pulp, bleached chemical wood pulps, or combinations thereof. Although a bond is a typical writing paper, almost all of it is printed, e.g., letterheads; therefore it must have good printability, as well as good writing and erasing qualities. It must also possess cleanliness, formation, color, finish, and freedom from fuzz. It is usually made in basis weights ranging from 13 to 24 pounds (17 X 22—500). (17, 287, 316)
bond strength
The unit load, applied in tension, compression, flexure, peel, cleavage, or sheer, required to break two adherend materials, with failure occurring in or near the plane of the bond. The bond strength of adhesives used in archival work should be such that stress to the point of failure will result in failure of the adhesive, rather than either adherend. (309)
bone cutting
A colloquial term used with reference to the slitting operation performed when an insert must be tipped-in a section, rather than onto the first or last leaf. (339)
bone dust
An abrasive composed of crushed and ground bones, which, when mixed with powdered chalk and pumice, is used to clean vellum bindings.
bone glue
A GLUE processed from the collagen content of bones, mainly from "green" or fresh bones of bovine animals. Bone glue prepared from solvent-extracted, degreased bones is called "extracted bone glue." (184)
Bonet Paul
1899-1972
An artisan and bibliophile who turned to the art of creating designs, Bonet was probably the most influential French designer of bookbindings of his day. He was at first influenced by the bindings of PIERRE LE GRAIN. While his early work was in purely geometrical gold fillet design, his later creations were related more closely to the spirit and theme of the book being decorated. Bonet had available to him the best bookbinders and gilders in Paris, and with them he concentrated on the contrasting textures of leathers, wood, and even metals, with surfaces scultptured and pierced, achieving nearly mathematical repetition of linear forms and even surrealist effects produced by collage and photography. See PLATE IX. (104, 347)
bonnet board
A very hard-rolled, thin, smooth-surfaced board similar to file indices; sometimes used for notebook covers.
book
See illustration 1. A collection of written, printed, illustrated, or blank leaves of paper, parchment (or vellum), papyrus, or other flexible or semi-flexible material, strung or bound together. Today, in its most familiar form, a book is considered to be one or more folded and gathered sheets of paper, fastened together at one edge, and trimmed on one or more of the remaining three edges to form a continuous series of uniform leaves. Specifically, a book is a collection of single sheets or folded leaves, bearing printing or writing, that have been folded, stitched, sewn, or secured by adhesive along the binding edge, generally rounded and backed, and usually secured between boards that have been covered in cloth, paper, or like material, or which have been bound in leather. See: CODEX. 2. A collection of tablets of wood, ivory, or other rigid material, containing writing, drawings, etc., and sometimes covered with blank covers of the same or different materials. 3. A continuous roll of parchment, or similar material, or a book and job folding machine strip of parchment creased between columns and folded in the manner of a CONCERTINA FOLD, and containing writing, etc. See also: SCROLL (1). (102, 123, 156, 161)
book and job folding machine
A type of buckle folding machine having four folding levels, each at right angles to the preceding and following levels, which permit up to four right angle folds, resulting in 16 leaves (32 pages) from one sheet. This type of machine also has one and sometimes two parallel sections, which enables it to produce a section of up to 64 leaves from one sheet. Book and job folding machines are also sometimes equipped for cutting, padding, and trimming. See also: FOLDING MACHINES. (320)
book basis
The BASIC SIZE of the sheet of paper most often used in book printing in the United States- 25 by 38 inches.
bookbinder
A craftsman who binds book; a binder; a bibliopegist. The term is also applied to one who creates the designs for the finishing of a book, but who may or may not actually execute the design. Although usually assumed to mean a hand bookbinder, the term is frequently applied to the owner or manager of a bookbinding establishment, e.g., a library bookbinder.
bookbinder's type
Individual letters and number of ordinary type, without handles, designed to be set in a LETTERING PALLET or BLOCKING PRESS, and used to letter books. The use of the pallet or press gives uniformity to the lettering and saves time, but it does not give the freedom and individuality that is available with the use of HAND LETTERS. Type, on the other hand, is extremely useful when lettering a number of copies of the same title. (339)
bookbindery
A place where books are bound, such as a library or edition bindery, etc. Also, as generally understood, a place where various operations connected with printing, but not always with bookbinding, are carried out, such as ruling, perforating, numbering, folding, gathering, padding, etc. See also: BLANKBOOK BINDING; BOOKBINDING; EDITION BINDING; GENERAL JOB BINDING; GENERAL OFFICE STATIONERY BINDING; LIBRARY BINDING; MANIFOLD BINDING; MECHANICAL BINDING; PAMPHLET BINDING.
bookbinding
The hand and/or machine processes by which leaves or sections (usually paper, but also parchment (or vellum), papyrus, etc.) are secured within covers to form a codex or book, as opposed to a roll. Historically, bookbinding did not exist in the manner of today until the codex began to replace the scroll, or roughly 2,000 years ago, when parchment notebooks came into use. Leaves of a quadrangular shape were found to be more convenient than scrolls but they had to be secured and covered for protection. Although classical texts and ecclesiastical works did exist in codex form before the 1st century A.D., the codex did not become common for other works before the 4th century. The earliest extant decorated bookbindings were altar Bibles, which were often elaborately bound and ornamented with jewels, gold, and ivory. Bookbinding in leather, however, was an art believed to have been practiced by the Copts in Egypt. Surviving examples of Coptic bindings, in red and brown leather, from the 8th and 9th centuries, represent a maturity of style and a variety of techniques which would indicate experience in bookbinding that probably developed over hundreds of years. Unlike European bindings of later times, they appear to have been executed by specialists in diverse forms of leather decoration and display a wide range of artistry, including tooling, piercing, and working with a stylus. The earliest known Islamic bindings were influenced by Coptic methods and techniques. The format they used for these early books was what we sometimes refer to today as OBLONG, or "landscape." At first the Islamic binders tooled only in blind, and in a formal style, but by the 11th century the characteristic Islamic design consisted of an oval center design with triangular cornerpieces, and, by the 13th century, the present day book format had been adopted and gold was being used in finishing. See: GOLD TOOLING. Two hundred years later floral designs were replacing geometric patterns and some pictorial bindings were being executed by means of embossing. Vivid coloring and delicate filigree tooling were used with considerable effect on the DOUBLURE (1), and, by the 16th century, lacquered bindings of excellent quality were being produced. By the 16th century, however, Islamic binding began to deteriorate, and the decline has persisted to this day. In Europe, the earliest known example of a decorated leather bookbinding is that of the Gospel according to St. John, found in the tomb of St. Cuthbert (d. 687); it is almost certainly an English binding of the 7th or 8th century. Although this remarkable binding shows the influence of Coptic and Islamic binding, European binding took on its own characteristics and by the 10th century had progressed along totally different lines from that of the Levant. One of the principal differences was in the manner of sewing, which was on raised bands; embellishment, too, developed along different lines, almost always being in the form of blind tooling executed with individual tools. Gothic bindings of the second half of the 15th century were mainly decorated with blind lines and individual tools, but the ROLL (1) which was first used in Germany, was also developed during this period (in about 1470), while the PANEL STAMP was being used in the Netherlands as early as the 13th century. The art of CUIR-CISELÉ was also practiced in German speaking countries. Gothic bindings continued to be produced in Germany and Eastern Europe until after the 16th century; however, by about 1470 or so, gold tooling was introduced into northern Italy (probably Venice), with the influence of the Near East being seen in the designs, the pattern of individual tools, as well as the superior delicacy of the workmanship. Until about the middle of the 16th century the gold tooled bindings produced in Italy were the best in Europe; other countries, especially France, imitated the Italian style. By 1538, however, morocco leather was being used in France, replacing calfskin, and from that time onward the Parisian craftsmen have produced bindings that have seldom been exceeded in beauty and craftsmanship. The tools used in this great era of French bookbinding were derived by way of pattern books for embroidery or metalwork from Oriental or arabesque models; most of the designs incorporated interlacing strapwork. Elaborations of this strapwork were seen in the FANFARE STYLE. The most characteristic early 16th century English bindings were those blocked in blind with panel stamps of the royal arms (which represented only a form of decoration and not royal ownership), while the earliest recorded use of gold tooling in England dates from 1519. Gold tooling did not become common in England until about 1530. Fine binding declined in France in the 17th century despite the artistry of the fanfare patterns and tools having POINTILLÉ outlines. One notable binder of that time was FLORIMOND BADIER, who also worked in pointillé tooling. In England, where variegated colors and delicate tooling became standard, the golden age of English bookbinding was during the period of the Restoration. Some of the tools in use at that time were of the pointillé style, while others, including small floral volutes, were more English in character. A common feature of many English bindings of this time was the broken pediment associated with the COTTAGE STYLE. The early 18th century witnessed a revival of French bookbinding, including the mosaics of AUGUSTIN DU SEUIL and ANTOINE MICHEL PADELOUP. High standards were also displayed in DENTELLE bindings with their lacy gold tooled borders, some being the work of the Derome family. See: DEROME STYLE. English binding deteriorated in the first half of the 18th century, partly because English craftsmen hung on to the cottage style after it had lost its effectiveness, and partly because they then began working with the uninspiring HARLEIAN STYLE. And yet, the 18th century produced ROGER PAYNE, a bookbinder who has been called England's greatest, and one of the few English binders the French thought worthy of copying. In addition, the 18th century produced another of England s great bookbinders, EDWARDS OF HALIFAX, who produced some remarkable TRANSPARENT VELLUM bindings. The use of onlays and inlays increased during the 19th century, the bindings often being tooled in the cathedral style. See: CATHEDRAL BINDINGS. From about 1840 to 1880 there was little innovation in leather binding in any country, the emphasis being on delicacy and precision in tooling in the manner of previous times. The 19th century witnessed three major factors which have had an enormous effect on bookbinding to this day: 1) the rise of edition binding with its rapid development of a great variety of machines designed to produce books by the millions; 2) a severe decline in the quality of both paper and leather produced for the manufacture of books; and 3) the introduction of cloth as a book covering material. See: BOOK CLOTH. In the latter part of the last century new vigor was infused into fine binding largely through the efforts of MARIUS MICHEL in France and THOMAS J. COBDEN-SANDERSON in England. In France, following World War I, the origins of contemporary binding are to be found in the work of PIERRE LEGRAIN during his brief career as a bookbinder in the 1920s. His influence was enormous and is still being felt, and, in turn, those he influenced, including PAUL BONET, have had considerable influence upon their successors. The influence of Cobden-Sanderson was also felt well into the 20th century. The fact that he was an amateur bookbinder and not apprenticed to the trade of bookbinding seemed, in part, anyway, to have freed him from the deleterious influences that held sway during a great part of the 19th century, as manifested in the generally poor workmanship and even poorer materials plus a mania for retrospective binding. Cobden-Sanderson founded an amateur school of binding, which proceeded to flourish under DOUGLAS COCKERELL, who was Cobden-Sanderson's apprentice at the Doves Bindery. Cockerell, also, through his writings as well as his bindings, has had a considerable influence on the craft. English bookbinding fell on hard times between 1920 and the Second World War, not in small part because of book collectors' desire to have their books in original mint condition (including book jacket), a desire which persists to this day. The fine binder had but little opportunity to apply modern concepts of design to modern books. Bookbinding following the war was given considerable impetus by the efforts of EDGAR MANSFIELD in design and ROGER POWELL in construction. The teaching of Mansfield, which commenced at the (then) London School of Printing in 1948, has influenced, at least to some degree, the concepts of design of virtually all contemporary English and American bookbinders. (71, 89, 94, 157, 200, 202, 225, 236, 242, 243, 252, 270, 271) Operations. There is a reasonably well-marked distinction between that part of the bookbinding trade dealing with books meant to be read, known as letterpress (from the time when all books were printed by letterpress), and those intended to be written in, called stationery binding. Each of these may again be divided into four groups, according to the particular class of binding involved: Letterpress binding 1. Extra leather binding, i.e., hand binding 2. Library binding 3. Edition (or publisher's) binding 4. Miscellaneous binding, e.g., pamphlet binding Stationery binding 1. Blankbook (account-book) binding 2. Manifold binding 3. Exercise and notebook binding 4. General office and stationery binding, e.g., checkbook binding. The operations of bookbinding begin with the folding of the sheets into sections (or signatures) and conclude, in library and edition binding, with casing-in; and in hand binding, with the pasting down of the board papers. The finishing of a hand-bound book, while also a part of bookbinding, is generally considered to be artistic work. In a very general sense, the operations may be divided into three very broad categories: the steps involved in preparation for binding, FORWARDING, and finally, FINISHING (1). Preparation includes all the operations up to and including folding, most of which are actually the work of the printer and not the bookbinder. (See: BINDERY WAREHOUSE. ) Forwarding, as the name connotes, carries the book up to covering and pasting down (or casing-in), as well as edge gilding, marbling, etc. Finishing includes lettering and any decoration. Since edition and library bindings are blocked (lettered and/or decorated) before being cased, forwarding and finishing are somewhat intermingled. The sequence of operations followed by the bookbinder or bindery from the time the sheets (in edition binding and occasionally hand binding) or books and/or periodical issues (library binding and hand binding) are received to final inspection are as follows: NOTE: B refers to blankbook binding, E to edition binding, H to hand binding, and L to library binding. B E H L x x Entering record x x x Folding (only occasionally in hand binding) x Sorting to remove incorrectly or poorly ruled sheets x x x Gathering (only in hand binding if sheets have to be folded; in edition binding, gathering sometimes follows the tipping on of endpapers) x x Collating x Removing spine folds for oversewing or adhesive binding) x x Pulling (in preparation for resewing through the folds) x x Knocking out the old backing ridge (if required) x x Mending, guarding, general repairs, etc. x x Guarding plates, refolding maps, making stubs, etc. x x x Pressing (bundling) x x x x Making joints for blankbooks, or endpapers for others x Guarding first and last three folios (sections) x x x Marking and preparing for sewing x x x x Sewing and attaching endpapers or joints x Nipping or smashing x Fraying cords x x x x Gluing up the spine x x x x Trimming (See alternative hand binding method, below) x Cutting fore edge out of boards x x x x Rounding x x x Backing x Cleaning off spine and drying x Clothings x Making tongue x x Lining spine x Cutting head and tail out of boards x x Cutting and preparing boards x Paring and slotting tongue x x Case-making x x Cutting leather x Making spring-back (may be done in batches in advance) x Attaching spring-back (and levers) x x Making plate or casting type for blocking x x Blocking case x x Attaching boards x Trimming ends of spring-back x x Paring leather x x Covering x x Trimming margin of turn-ins x Siding x x Casing-in and/or building-in x x Pasting down board papers x x Pressing x Cutting index x Numbering (occasionally follows folding) x x Decorating and/or lettering x x Cleaning off x Jacketing There are four basic characteristics of a well-bound (modern) book: flexibility, durability, solidity, and accuracy. Flexibility is a characteristic of the spine of the book which allows the book to open freely with minimum strain on the structure. The factors affecting flexibility include the method of sewing (or otherwise joining the leaves or sections), the grain direction of the paper, the presence of tipped-in plates, the characteristics of the paper, the lining of the spine, rounding and backing, and finally, the materials and techniques used in covering the book. See: FLEXIBLE SEWING; OVERSEWING; ADHESIVE BINDING; MACHINE DIRECTION; PAPER; SPINE LINING; HOLLOW BACK; TIGHT BACK. Durability is a characteristic of a binding which enables it to withstand flexing, abrasion, impact, tearing, and staining or soiling. It is built into a binding in certain places, but particularly in the sewing, attachment of the endpapers, rounding and backing, the lining of the spine, and the attachment of the boards (in hand binding), or casing-in or building-in (in edition and library binding). Inferior materials, and especially inferior adhesives, spine linings, endpapers and covering materials will adversely affect durability. See: ROUNDING; BACKING; ENDPAPERS; LACING-IN; CASING-IN. Solidity is a characteristic a book displays when it has the appearance of a compact entity, lies flat when closed, and is loosely jointed at the spine. Good pressing (or casing-in), gluing, and especially good rounding and backing, are essential, as also is the use of boards of a suitable weight. Accuracy is a somewhat vague term, but is manifest in the ability of the book to stand vertically without leaning or falling over. This is accomplished by square trimming, proper attachment of the boards (or case-making and casing-in), and square cutting of the boards. (56, 57, 89, 92, 100, 115, 126, 135, 152, 170, 236, 279, 280, 320, 335, 343, 371, 372)
book blocks
Flat, smooth boards of varying lengths and thicknesses, with one end shaped to fit the spine of a rounded book, and used to support the cover while pasting down the board paper or leather joint, and also when tooling the turn-ins or doublure. The block prevents strain at the joint of the book.
book cloth
A generic term for the woven fabrics used in covering books. They are usually, but by no means always, woven cotton fabrics, which may be bleached or mercerized, dyed, filled with pigment colors, gelatinized, starched, coated or impregnated, calendered, and embossed (grained). They are divided into classes according to type and quality. Specifications for the fabrics used for book cloths are: Book Cloths (starch-filled and impregnated) Group Weight A Light B Medium C Heavy C-1 Heavy Buckrams (starch-filled and impregnated) Group Weight D Light E Medium F Heavy The specific (minimum) requirements for these fabrics are as follows below: Group Stripped-cloth Warp plus filling Breakings strength Breaking weight—not threads per inch— sum (warp plus strength— less than: not less than: filling—not not less less than: than: Pounds Pounds Ounces/square yard Warp Filling A 1.7 92 60 38 15 B 2.1 104 77 50 20 C 3.4 104 105 55 42 C-1 4.2 94 120 64 48 D 4.7 58 110 65 35 E 6.0 106 165 100 55 F 7.9 110 200 120 70 The breaking strength sum for embossed cloths has been established as 25% less than the figure for cloths that are not embossed. Pyroxylin treated fabrics, which were introduced in about 1910, represented a major breakthrough in book cloth. The term "pyroxylin treated," as applied to book cloths, means either pyroxylin coated or pyroxylin impregnated cotton fabrics. The difference between the two is the quantity of protective coating applied and the manner of application, as well as the type of material treated. The pyroxylin composition consists of gelatinized nitrocellulose, a plasticizer to impart softness and flexibility, coloring matter, and a solvent. The fabrics used for impregnation are lightweight muslins, while those used for coating are heavier drills, twills, and sheeting. Coated fabrics are sometimes embossed in imitation of leather. The surface of impregnated fabrics retain the texture of the base materials. Pyroxylin impregnated fabrics are superior to starch-filled fabrics because their surfaces are more water resistant, they are more resistant to insects and fungi, and are generally stronger. They wear well and are particularly suitable for use in library binding. Pyroxylin coated fabrics are used extensively in edition binding because of the decorative effects obtainable. They, too, are water repellant and immune to insect attack and fungi, but they do not wear as well as impregnated cloths because of cracking at the joints and occasional peeling of the coating. Book cloths for cheaper editions are closely woven, lightweight, starch-filled cotton fabrics, sometimes lightly embossed to conceal the weave of the fabric. They are generally attractive but have little strength or durability. They are also vulnerable to water spotting and soiling, and cannot be wiped clean. In addition, they are generally unsuitable for printing by offset lithography. The book cloth used in library binding is generally of two types, pyroxylin impregnated and starch filled. The Library Binding Institute specifications for impregnated cloth, i.e., buckram, call for a base fabric of cotton, the warp yarns of which are to be woven in pairs, and with specifications the same as for group F, above. In addition, the Institute requires that the dye used must penetrate through the fabric so that both sides will be covered equally prior to the application of the impregnating compound (except in the case of "linen" type finishes). The impregnating compound must be uniform and homogeneous and be of either the nitrocellulose or cellulose acetate type. The weight of the impregnating compound must constitute at least 10% of the total weight of the finished fabric and must contain no oxidizable oils. The plasticizer, including oil (if any), must not exceed 20% by weight of the impregnating compound, nor must the weight of the pigment exceed 25% of the compound. Residual solvents, if any, are not to exceed 0.01% by weight of the finished fabric, and the pH of the cloth, as measured by standard methods, is not to be less than 6.5 nor more than 7.5, except in the case of the use of acid dyes, in which case the pH must not be less than 6.0. Cloth specifications state that the finished cloth shall be sufficiently water resistant to permit no penetration of water within a period of ten minutes, as determined by the ring test. The finished cloth is to be sufficiently grease resistant to permit no penetration of oleic acid within a period of five minutes, as determined by the ring test. The finished cloth must be capable of adhering permanently to boards and board papers under normal processing using either an animal glue or a resinous adhesive, and must resist rub-off to the degree that loss by abrasion shall not exceed 8% by weight of the fabric, when subjected to abrasion for 10 minutes by flint paper (2/0), on a disc 2 inches in diameter rotating at 1,250 rpm under 3 pounds of pressure. The finished cloth is to be free of marked odor, and its fastness to light shall be such that it will not lose color or fade when subjected to fadeometer exposure for 15 hours. Cloth as a covering material for books is said to have been introduced, in England, by William Pickering, possibly as early as 1821-23, although books bound in burlap go back to the 1760s. Pickering's cloth was calico, a soft clothing material which disintegrated in the presence of glue unless it was lined with paper. ARCHIBALD LEIGHTON is generally credited with being the first to introduce a really durable cloth for covering books. The first true book cloth was a dyed and glazed calico, prepared with a starch filler to make it resistant to the moisture in glue. The first cloth had little character and was aesthetically unpleasant. It was also without natural texture and the threads gave it a somewhat raw and unfinished appearance. What was needed was some sort of decoration which would make the threads less obvious. When this came about, it took the form of embossed grains worked on the material, either in the roll or piece. One of the earliest designs, introduced in 1831, was a water finish, which may have been an outgrowth of the watered silk patterns that were introduced in 1828; it was used only for a short period because of its high cost and poor durability. See also: CLOTH GRAINING. For several years following the introduction of cloth, it was the usual practice of binders to buy the cloth in its basic white color, and then have it dyed, filled, and otherwise prepared for use, or to dye and finish it themselves. Embossing was done at first by means of ribbon embossers, but this was expensive, and the larger binderies did their own embossing by means of manually operated, heated rollers. By the 1840s, however, the complete manufacture of finished book cloth had become a separate business. Notwithstanding its obvious advantages, it was not until the middle of the 19th century that cloth largely replaced paper in regular edition binding. The rapid increase in the use of cloth was largely due to the successful methods that were developed of blocking in gold on cloth-covered cases. It was then possible to give cloth bindings a finished appearance which enabled them to be compared favorably with hand-tooled leather and, therefore, acceptable as a permanent binding. (71, 89, 147, 187, 188, 209, 236, 264, 286, 326, 341)
book conservation
See: CONSERVATION; RESTORATION.
book corners
Protective caps for the corners of book covers, sometimes made of leather, but also of metal or the same material that covers the book. Also called "corners." See also: BOSSES.
book covers
A protective cover or CHEMISE of soft leather, such as DOESKIN (1), or, in the case of blankbooks, a material such as canvas, sewn or slipped over a leather-covered book for protection against abrasion, moisture, light, etc. Soft leather covers were common in the Middle Ages and early Renaissance, and canvas or cloth slip-on covers are still being used for blankbooks. (115)
book crafts
The operations that are carried out in the production of books, including papermaking, printing, design of books, design and production of illustrations, and bookbinding. (335)
book-drill
1. A linen cloth used to reinforce endpapers. This type of reinforcement is sometimes required because opening the cover, particularly in the case of side sewn books which have little flexibility, strains the sewing and will eventually cause the endpaper to break away unless it is reinforced. 2. A high-speed electric drill used for producing holes of a very small diameter through the paper of books to be overcast but not resewn. A similar drill, usually in a press, is used to drill holes completely through the leaves of a book that is to be side sewn.
book forming and pressing machine
A machine used in edition binding which applies heat and pressure by means of "creasers" to shape the spine of the text block. Such a machine is generally designed to be used in conjunction with a CASING-IN MACHINE. See also: BUILDING-IN MACHINE. (320)
book jacket
A wrapper originally used to protect the covering material of the book from soiling or other damage, but now also used for promotional purposes. It may be plain, printed, or illustrated, and is flush with the covers of the book at head and tail, but folded over the fore edge of both covers. It is usually detachable. Modern book jackets are often very elaborately designed and are frequently printed in color. The book jacket, in one form or another, can be traced back to the 16th century. Also called "book wrapper," "dust cover," "dust jacket," "dust wrapper," "jacket," and "wrapper." (12, 156, 252)
book jacketing machine
A machine which automatically places jackets on newly bound edition bindings. The majority of such machines can jacket books up to a maximum of 10 by 8 by 2 inches, generally at speeds up to 35 books or more per minute. (343)
book label
A simple printed or engraved name ticket (usually paper but sometimes leather), stuck to the inside of the upper cover or one of the front flyleaves of a book, generally for purposes of identification or ownership. A more elaborate label is known as a BOOKPLATE. (69)
booklet
A small book. The term "booklet," like PAMPHLET, has been defined in a number of ways, including: 1) an affected term for a short book or pamphlet; 2) a small book, commonly bound in paper and generally used for advertising purposes; 3) a small book containing up to but not more than 24 pages, which is sufficient for classification as larger than a pamphlet; 4) a stitched pamphlet of eight or more pages, usually with a cover, and small enough to be carried in one's pocket; 5) a publication containing more pages than a pamphlet but fewer than a book and which may have a paper, limp, or stiff cover; 6) any pamphlet that is sewn or stitched but not permanently bound; and 7) a paper-covered publication in book format ranging in size from a few pages to a small-scale edition of a book. (139, 142, 256, 316)
book lice
See notes on the electronic edition Very small wingless insects of the order Corrodentia, usually of the family Atropidae, that will attack paper and book materials, and appear capable of living on mold and mildew. Also called "deathwatch." See also: BOOKWORMS.
bookmark
1. See: REGISTER. 2. Any printed or woven paper or other material, an inch or 2 wide and usually 4 or more inches in length, used in marking a place in a closed book for future reference. Bookmarks are frequently decorative, carrying advertisements or commemorative illustrations.
book papers
A class or group of cultural papers which have in common characteristics that, in general, make them suitable for the graphic arts. The various characteristics are designed to meet the requirements of the method of printing and the end use of the publication produced. Book papers are produced from rag pulps, mechanical and chemical wood pulps, esparto pulp, cotton fiber pulps, reclaimed paper stock, or combinations of different pulps. Mineral fillers, sizing, coloring matter, or other materials are added to the pulp in whatever combination is needed to give the appearance, strength, opacity, brightness, printability, permanence, etc., to fit the immediate or end use of the paper. The bulk of this type of paper is produced on a conventional FOURDRINIER MACHINE and is machine dried; however, some book papers are made on cylinder and hand molds. Uncoated book papers are used in the printing of periodicals, books, pamphlets, and the like, and are converted into other products such as tablets, ledger paper, etc. They are generally made on a Fourdrinier machine and may or may not be surface sized. They are made to various bulk specifications and in a variety of finishes, including antique, eggshell, machine, English, a:nd super-calendered, as well as in special or fancy finishes. Uncoated papers are made in basis weights 30 to 150 pounds (25 X 38—500), the most common weights being 30 to 70 pounds. Coated papers are used in the printing of periodicals, books, pamphlets, etc., where the use of fine halftone illustrations may be required. They are well sized and possess good tearing strength. The base papers are coated with white mineral pigments mixed with adhesives such as casein, starch, latex, resin, or glue, either on the papermaking machine as part of the manufacturing process or as a separate operation subsequent to the manufacture of the base paper. Waxes or soaps may also be added to the coating mixtures to add to the finish and feel of the paper. The mineral pigments employed include clay, satin white, barium sulfate, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfite, and titanium oxide, which may be applied as such or in mixtures, the selection of the combination used being determined by the effect required. The adhesives and the amounts used are selected according to the surface strength of the coating md its resistance to moisture and vehicles used in the printing inks. Coated papers may be coated on one or both sides with a single or double coating. Virtually all are supercalendered, with finishes ranging from a dull matte to a high gloss. The basis weights for these papers range from 30 to 150 pounds (25 X 38—500), with 40 to 80 pounds being most common. Coated papers usually have a brighter color, greater opacity, and a higher finish than uncoated book papers. (17, 36, 40, 63, 78, 323, 346, 366)
bookplate
A label, usually printed or engraved, frequently with a distinctive design, identifying the owner of a book, and usually pasted or tipped to the inside of the upper cover. Bookplates may be simple to the point of giving only the name of the library or other owner (sometimes with the expression "ex libris" included), or very elaborately designed, frequently with heraldic emblems or insignia. The use of the bookplate can he dated back to at least as early as 1516, but in England, France, and Germany they did not become popular until the 18th century. There was a tremendous revival in their use and study in the 1890s, and again since about 1965. During both periods collectors have formed societies, produced journals and publications, and actually commissioned many bookplates for their own sake, that is, not necessarily intended for use in books, but rather for exchange with other collectors. Over the years many eminent engravers have designed bookplates, and among the examples still extant are a great number which were executed with considerable skill. Because of the relative scarcity of engravers in America before 1800, bookplates were rare before that time; however, since about 1840, they have been fairly common in this country. Their use in libraries is quite common today, but in some institutions, largely for reasons of economy, the bookplate has been replaced by a rubber stamp. (69, 200)
book pocket
A receptacle of stiff paper, cloth, buckram, leather, or an ordinary envelope, pasted on the inside of a book usually the lower cover to hold loose material, maps, charts, user cards, etc. Some book pockets, such as those found in many English (as well as Continental) almanacs from the late 17th to the early 18th centuries, have concertina (expansion) folds at head and tail and open at the fore edge. Sometimes a COMPENSATION GUARD is required to provide for the thickness of the material in the pocket. The opening of the typical pocket is at the head, or less often, at the binding edge. (12)
book repairer
The so-called one man bookbinder or repairer, an itinerant bookbinder who offers to bind, rebind, restore and/or clean books in a library, generally quickly and at low cost. Book repairers are not nearly so numerous as they were in the past; however, they still exist, and probably many thousands of books have been "restored," some well and some poorly, by these itinerant bookbinders. (131)
book rest
A device designed to hold a book in position during the tooling of the area where the spine curves around onto the sides. Its advantage is that it provides a better angle at which to work, as well as better sighting. The sloping sides of a FINISHING PRESS are also used for the same purpose. (130)
book sander
A machine used in library binderies to remove the spine folds of a book having binding margins so narrow that the folds cannot be trimmed away in a cutting machine. Modern sanders can be adjusted to remove as little as 1/32 inch. The sander is also preferred by many library binders because it is faster than a cutting machine. (164)
books in sheets
"Books" as received by the binder in flat (unfolded) sheets, which must be folded, gathered and collated, and which must then have any maps, illustrations, etc., inserted before the actual binding processes. The sheets are sometimes identified by a SIGNATURE (1), which may be either a letter and/or number, and in the case of sets may include the volume number, printed at the tail margin (in the direction line) of the first, and occasionally on succeeding pages of each. Before the rise of edition binding most publications were delivered to the bookseller in sheets, to be bound to the customer's order. "Books in sheets" today is almost exclusively a term restricted to edition binding. (83, 335)
book sizes
The dimensions of books, as measured, in inches, centimeters, or millimeters, from head to tail and from spine to fore edges of the cover. The descriptions given to book sizes are based on a still currently used system that involves using the size of a leaf as a fraction of the folded sheet on which it was printed. With reference to the printing of books, an even number of leaves always results when a sheet is folded, i.e., 2, 4, 8, 16, etc., resulting in printed pages on each side of the leaf, i.e., 4, 8, 16, 32, etc. Except for the largest size, the FOLIO (1), the name of the size indicates the fractional part of the sheet one leaf occupies, e.g., quarto (2 folds, 4 leaves, 8 pages), 1/4 Of the sheet; octavo (3 folds, 8 leaves, 16 pages), 1/8 of the sheet, etc. In this system, since books are printed from different sizes of sheets (See: BOOK BASIS), the fractional designation by itself cannot denote an exact size; therefore it is a common practice to give the name of the sheet before the fractional name, e.g., royal octavo, which is an octavo 1/8 the size of a sheet 20 X 25 inches or, excluding the SQUARES, a book 10 x 6 1/4 inches (before trimming). Paper is cut to so many sizes, however, that the terms crown, royal, post, etc., unless qualified, are practically meaningless. See: SIZES OF PAPER. Untrimmed sizes for three commonly used sheet sizes are given below. The customary trim of 1/8 inch at head and tail will reduce the height of the text block by 1/4 inch; however, the size of the bound book. assuming 1/8 inch squares will make the height of the book the same as the sizes given. It should be mentioned that not all sheet sizes given are folded to produce books of the very small size indicated. All folds, following the first, are right-angle folds. The common book-trade designation of sizes was originally related to a sheet of handmade paper measuring 19 X 25 inches, which was the common size of the papermaking mold. When folded to 8 leaves, or 16 pages, and trimmed, each was 6 1/2 X 9 1/4 inches, approximately, and was the standard dimension of an 8vo. When folded to make 16 leaves, or 32 pages, it was a 16 mo. With the present great variety of paper sizes, all dimensions are by necessity only approximate. (52, 69, 140, 156, 169) Book sizes Size Name Times Leaves Pages Size of Untrimmed (in inches) Folded per Sheet per Sheet Page (leaf) 25 by 38 folio 1 2 4 25 by 19 25 by 38 quarto 2 4 8 19 by 12 1/2 25 by 38 octavo 3 8 16 12 1/2 by 9 1/2 25 by 38 sixteenmo 4 16 32 9 1/2 by 6 1/4 25 by 38 thirty-twomo 5 32 64 6 1/4 by 4 3/4 25 by 38 sixty-fourmo 6 64 18 4 3/4 by 3 1/8 20 by 25 folio 2 4 20 by 12 1/2 20 by 25 quarto 2 4 8 12 1/2 by 10 20 by 25 Octavo 3 8 16 10 by 6 1/4 20 by 25 sixteenmo 4 16 32 6 1/4 by 5 20 by 25 thirty-twomo s 32 64 2 1/2 by 3 1/8 20 by 25 sixty-fourmo 6 64 128 3 1/8 by 2 1/2 18 by 23 folio 2 4 18 by 11 1/2 18 by 23 quarto 2 4 8 11 1/2 by 9 18 by 23 octavo 3 8 16 9 by 5 3/4 18 by 23 sixteenmo 4 16 32 5 3/4 by 4 1/2 18 by 23 thirty-twomo 5 32 64 4 1/2 by 2 7/8 18 by 23 sixty-fourmo 6 64 128 2 7/8 by 2 1/4 Size names and their equivalents Old Name Modern Name Abbreviation Symbol folio folio fo or f quarto quarto 4to 4° sexto sixmo 6to or 6mo 6° octavo octavo 8mo or 8vo 8° duodecimo twelvemo 12mo 12° sextodecimo sixteenmo 16mo 16° octodecimo eighteenmo 18mo 18° vincestmo-quartO twenty-fourmo 24mo 24° vegisemo-quarto twenty-fourmo 24mo 24° trigesimo-decundo thirty-twomo 32mo 32° quadragesimo-octavo forty-eightmo 48mo 48° sexagesimo-quarto sixty-fourmo 64mo 64° British book sizes Size Name Octavo Size Quarto Size pott 6 1/4 by 4 8 by 6 1/4 foolscap 6 3/4 by 4 1/4 8 1/4 by 6 3/4 crown 7 1/2 by 5 1O by 7 1/2 large crown 8 by 5 1/4 10 1/2 by 8 large post 8 1/4 by 5 1/4 10 1/4 by 8 1/4 demy 8 3/4 by 5 5/8 11 1/4 by 8 3/4 post 8 by 5 10 by 8 small demy 8 1/2 by 5 5/8 11 1/4 by 8 1/2 medium 9 by 5 3/4 11 1/2 by 9 small royal 9 1/4 by 6 1/8 12 1/4 by 9 1/4 royal 10 by 6 1/4 12 1/2 by 10 super royal 10 1/4 by 6 3/4 13 1/2 by 10 1/4 imperial 11 by 7 1/2 15 by 11
books of permanent interest
A category established by Douglas Cockerell shortly after the turn of the century in an effort to categorize the time, effort and funds to be expended in binding books of an "intermediate" nature—i.e., hooks of permanent scholarly, historical, etc., interest, but of relatively little monetary or esthetic interest, which should be solidly and well bound, but for which the most expensive work would be inappropriate. In Cockerell's day, this category of books was bound by hand, sewn with linen thread around cotton or linen tapes, which were secured between split boards (when the books were large and heavy), and covered with strong cloth or the most durable leather, or a combination of the two, e.g., quarter or half bindings. In greatly modified form, the Library Binding Institute has continued to define this category of books. See: PERMANENT MATERIALS. See also: BOOKS OF TEMPORARY INTEREST; BOOKS OF VALUE. (83)
books of temporary interest
Books that must be bound and kept clean and usable for only occasional use. This category assumes that the handling such hooks receive and the storage area of the library will suffice for less than a full and "permanent" binding, which is often not the case. See also: BOOKS OF PERMANENT INTEREST.
books of value
Books that are valuable and/or rare, which may or may not have any special scholarly value, or books of special interest to a particular library, and which are bound in the best manner and with the best materials. See also: BOOKS OF PERMANENT INTEREST.
book support
A wood or metal device generally placed to the right side of a row of books on a shelf to support and maintain them in a vertical position. Book supports are available in several forms: 1) the spring type, which hangs from the ribbed shelf above (but which sometimes does not reach down to the smaller books); 2) the metal support, with a stamped-out metal tongue that slips under the first few books; it rests on the same shelf as the books to be supported, and should be flanged to prevent it from "spearing" or otherwise damaging the books; 3) the type that locks into the ribbed shelf on which the books rest, and which can be difficult to slide if the locking key becomes twisted; 4) the magnetic support, which is usable only on ferrous metal shelves; and 5) wooden supports, some of which are very elaborate and are generally used to support more valuable books, or books in specially designated areas. The better book supports have a felt- or cork-covered base, especially for use on wooden shelves, and, for valuable books, a felt- or cork-covered face. The typical metal support is generally available in two sizes—regular, about 6 inches tall, and oversize, about 9 inches tall.
book wall
The arrangement in a double-sided case of one or more sets of books displaying the upper and lower covers of craft bookbindings where comprehensive designs flow across adjacent surfaces to create a unified image. The book wall is the creation of the contemporary English bookbinder PHILIP SMITH. (311)
bookworms
The larva of any of some 160 species of beetles. The mature female insect lays her eggs on the edges of books, or in the crevices of bookshelves, and the larvae, when hatched. burrow into the books, or shelves, riddling them with tiny tunnels. Various bookworms, as they are mistakenly called, have been identified, or supposedly identified, among which are: Anobium domesticum, A. eruditus, A. Paniceum, A. pertinax, A. punctatum, and A. striatum; Acarus cheyletus and A. eruditus; Dermestes lardarius; Aecophora pseudospretella; Sitodrepa paniceum; Attagenus pellio; Lepisma saccharina; Ptinus fur; Antherenus varius; Lyctus brunneus; Catorama mexicana; and Rhizopertha dominica. Of the types, the most notorious and destructive are: Sitodrepa paniceum, the drugstore beetle, the female of which is capable of producing as many as 800,000 descendants in a year; Lyctus brunneus, the powder-post beetle, which consumes wooden bookshelves and cases, packing the holes with a flourlike debris, so that nothing substantial remains of the shelf; Ptinus f ur, the spider beetle, first mentioned by Linnaeus in 1766, which can cause severe damage to books, papers, and leather if left undisturbed for long periods of time; Anobium punctatum, the common furniture beetle, the larvae of which bore long cylindrical holes in books and bookshelves; Catorama mexicana, the Mexican book beetle; Dermestes lardarius, the larder beetle, which prefers cheese, ham, etc., but which will devour leather if nothing else is available; and Rhizopertha dominica, which has caused extensive damage in libraries. Most of these so-called bookworms are small and dark- or reddish-brown. They enter libraries through windows, poorly fitting doors, etc., and seem to proliferate in libraries where dust, dirt, heat, darkness, and poor ventilation are prevalent. The measures used over the years for the control or elimination of bookworms are virtually legion, including numerous remedies to be rubbed into leather, added to paste, sprinkled on bookshelves and books, etc. Among the many remedies used are: alum and thymol, alum and vitriol (sulfuric acid), (oil of) anis, beeswax, benzene, bitumen, borax, buckbean, cajeput oil, camphor, chili, chloropicrin, cinchona, cinnamon, cloves and oil of cloves, colcynth, copal varnish, copper, cresote, derris, (oil of) eucalyptus, formalin (formaldehyde), kerosine, khuskhus, lac varnish, lavender, margosia, mercuric chloride, mirbane oil, nitrobenzene, muriatic (hydrochloric) acid, musk, myrrh, naphthalene, nicotine, orrisroot oil, ozone, pennyroyal, pepper, petroleum, phenol, porpoise oil, pyrethrum powder, Russia leather shavings, sandalwood, sassafras, shellac, snuff, thyme, thymol, turpentine. vermouth, and wormwood. Some of these remedies were totally ineffective: some were temporarily effective; and some were as destructive as, or even more so than, the pests themselves. Any preparation or process used to destroy the larvae or beetles must have sufficient residual effect not only to destroy existing larvae but also larvae which will hatch subsequent to the initial treatment. Treatment should be applied in conjunction with proper ventilation, temperature and humidity control, and cleanliness, so as to discourage future infestation. Fumigation is frequently used to rid libraries of beetle and larvae infestation. Four general methods are used: 1) fumigation of the entire library with hydrogen cyanide, carbon disulfide, or methyl bromide, which, of course, necessitates closing the library for several days; 2) fumigation of batches of books in specially designed vacuum chambers, with a combination (1:9 by weight) of ethylene oxide and carbon dioxide, which is a method well suited to the fumigation of new acquisitions; 3) routine fumigation of the entire collection, carried out batchwise in a chamber, using methyl bromide; and 4) fumigation of one or more books in a small air-tight box, using paradichloro-benzene crystals, which is a method suitable for use by the private collector. Although the first method is potentially dangerous and causes considerable inconvenience, it is the only one which will destroy beetles or larvae which are on the bookshelves. See also: BOOK LICE; SILVERFISH. (47, 143, 247, 335)
book wrapper
See: BOOK JACKET
boomer press
A now obsolete modified form of the STANDING PRESS. The power of the boomer press was obtained by a combination of four levers working on toggle joints, through which passed a right and left hand screw. The rotation of these screws caused the pressing surfaces to approach or move apart with a uniform motion, according to the direction of the rotation. This press had several advantages over the regular standing press, including: 1) once the pressure was applied it did not release slightly as the ordinary press is likely to do, so that the material under pressure remained under full pressure, and could, therefore, be pressed in somewhat less time; and 2) the enormous pressure it was capable of exerting. (8, 97)
border
1. An ornamental design in a repeat pattern in blind or gold around the edges of the covers of a book, frequently enclosing one or more center pieces of a different design. 2. An ornamental design along one or more sides of a page of an illuminated manuscript or of the body of printed matter, or surrounding an illuminated miniature.
boric acid
A weak, volatile acid (H3BO3), obtained naturally, or by treating borax with a mineral acid. It is used to thicken and preserve adhesives made of GUM ARABIC. (142)
Borneo cutch
See: ACACIA.
bosses
Brass or other metal knobs, studs, SHOES, or ornamentation fastened to the cover of a book for ornamental value or to prevent the leather from being scratched or otherwise marred. Bosses originally were attached to books that were meant to lie on a lectern and not stand on bookshelves. Not all books were provided with them, and they were more common in Germany than elsewhere. There was usually one boss at each corner of both covers and another in the middle of each cover, or ten in all, although the center bosses were sometimes left off. It is commonly assumed that the use of bosses declined with the advent of printing from movable metal type, the proliferation of books, and vertical shelving in cupboards and book stacks. In addition, the relative increase in the use of pasteboard instead of wooden boards also reduced the use of bosses, although in Germany, where wooden boards were still common in the 16th century, they continued to be used more often than elsewhere. Today, books with bosses are frequently kept in boxes so as to prevent damage to adjacent books on the shelves. See also: ROLLER SHOES. See PLATE 1. (69, 83, 236)
bottle rubber
See: GOLD RUBBER.
bottom color
The base color applied to a leather and then corrected to the desired shade by the application of succeeding colors during the finishing process. In SUEDE LEATHER, however, the bottom color is the final shade. (164, 248)
bottom combs
See: MARBLING COMBS.
bottom edge
See: LOWER EDGE.
bottom split
The innermost layer of a split cowhide. Because they are relatively thick, cowhides are generally split into at least two layers (and sometimes three) if they are to be used as a "light" leather. If split once, the two layers are the grain and flesh splits; if split twice, the layers are the grain, middle, and bottom split. When processed into leather the bottom split is called a BUFFING (1). (363)
bouilly
See: CUIR-BOUILLI. bound flexible. A term sometimes used to indicate a book that has been sewn on single or double raised cords, the slips of which have been laced into the boards. See also: FLEXIBLE SEWING; LACING-IN. (115)
bound in
An insert which has been sewn in with the sections of a book. See also: BIND IN. (131)
bouquet marble
A drawn marble pattern formed in the manner of small flowers side by side and used mainly for marbled endpapers. The bouquet is generally produced from two or three shades of brown and one throwing of black. After the colors have been dropped on, drawn with a stylus and combed in the usual manner, a rake is drawn through the colors right and left across the entire surface of the size in such a manner that the teeth of the second row trace exactly through the pattern left by the teeth of the first row. A somewhat different pattern is produced by treating the colors in the same manner but omitting the marbling comb and spreading the drops of color only with a stylus into very narrow cross lines followed by raking. (151, 327)
box
1. A container for maps, bundles of loose sheets, samples of materials, disintegrating books, etc., that may be open at one end or completely closed in. See also: CUT CORNER PAMPHLET FILE; PAMPHLET BOX; PRINCETON FILE; PULL-OFF BOX; SLIPCASE; SOLANDER BOX. 2. A leather "marble" consisting of marbling water thrown on in small drops, followed by small spots of brown and black. Additional marbling water is then thrown on in large drops, followed by small spots of blue sprinkled on. When all is dry, scarlet and two or three coats of orange are sprinkled on. The leather is bent and twisted in several places during the course of applying the colors and water to form veins. 3. A surface pattern in leather, usually black calfskin, consisting of fine, box-shaped creases formed by BOARDING (1) the skin in two directions, head to tail and belly to belly. See also: WILLOW (2) 4. The trough-like receptacles on a folding machine into which the folded sections drop. 5. One of the magazines of a gathering machine. (66, 152, 339, 363)
box pocket
A stiffened three-dimensional BOOK POCKET.
box side
A cowhide cut in half down the backbone, full chrome, semi-chrome, or vegetable tanned, and usually colored black. It has a grain pattern of fine box-shaped creases formed by BOARDING (1) in two directions. head to tail and belly to belly. When colored it is usually called WILLOW SIDE. (61)
bradawl
An AWL with a chisel edge used for piercing holes in boards in preparation for LACING-IN. (133)
Bradel binding
A type of binding having a hollow back, and not unlike a library binding, except that it is considered to be temporary. The style was originated in Germany by Alexis Pierre Bradel, also known as Bradel l'ainé, and also as Bradel-Derome, son-in-law and successor to Nicholas-Denis Derôme. The style was taken to France sometime between 1772 and 1809. Bradel bindings generally have split boards into which are attached the extensions of the spine lining cloth. The edges are uncut, sometimes with the head edge being gilt. They generally have a leather or linen spine. In France the style was known as "Cartonnage à la Bradel," or as "en gist." See also: LESNÉ, FRANÇOIS A.D. (347)
Braille book
Braille binding
A book printed by the Braille process, i.e., the dampened paper is embossed with codes of raised dots. Braille books are bound much like other books except that they are generally liberally stubbed and they are not pressed after casing-in, as the pressure would flatten the raised characters.
Braille printing paper
Paper used in the Braille printing process. It is usually produced from a high quality chemical wood pulp in basis weights of 32 to 36 pounds (17 X 22 - 500). Significant properties required include a smooth surface, good elongation, and high tensile strength. (17)
branding
1. A method of marking a book with hot irons that burn letters or symbols into one or more edges, generally for purposes of indicating ownership. Branding was most often employed in Mexico, and was initiated in the early 17th century by the monks in charge of convent libraries. Brands of iron or bronze were used, usually on the head edge, although it was sometimes done on the fore edge and occasionally on both head and tail edges. Unfortunately, the process often damaged the covers, title pages, and endpapers; however. as a mark of ownership, it was effective in deterring the theft of books, as the brand could only be removed by trimming deep into the margins. 2. The process of rolling a FLESHER or SHEEPSKIN with hot rolls for the purpose of smoothing the skin. (115, 264, 274)
brashiness
The relative inflexibility of the cast film of a dry animal glue. The term also refers to brittleness of an adhesive resulting from drying, plasticizer migration, and the like. (222)
brass boarded
A leather, usually a cowhide BUFFING (1), that has been boarded by hand or grained with a faint parallel line effect. (256)
brass boards
brass bound bounds
See: BACKING BOARDS; CASING-IN BOARDS.
brayer
1. An old term for a pestle with which ink was spread before being applied to a printing surface. Made of wood, it was round, flat at one end, and had a handle at the other end. 2. A printer's hand inking roller, also used in making BRAYER PRINTS.
brayer prints
Decorative endpapers and cover prints produced by rolling an inked brayer over paper under which flat objects, such as leaves, ferns, etc., have been placed. Alternative methods are to ink the objects and press the paper on them with a clean brayer, or to roll the inked brayer over the paper and then place objects underneath and roll with an ink of a different color. (183)
Brazil wood
The heavy wood of any of the tropical trees, family Leguminosae, which yield a red, water-soluble dye, brazilin (C16H14O5) which at one time was used to produced coloring materials used both in marbling and in dyeing leather. Brazil wood dyes have been largely superceded by the synthetic dyestuffs.
bread crumbs
The particles of ordinary crustless bread, used by some restorers to remove loose dust from maps, charts. etc., and for dry cleaning the leaves of books. (173)
break
1. The parting of adjacent sections of a book due to failure of the sewing. See also: START. 2. A crack in the gold or foil BLOCKING or tooling of a book. 3. In papermaking, a complete separation of the web of paper, either on or off the machine. 4. In leather manufacture, the minute wrinkles formed when the grain surface of leather is bent so that its grain side is sharply concave. If the wrinkles formed are very fine. and there are many of them to the linear inch, the leather is said to have a fine break, whereas if they are large and there are relatively few to the linear inch, the leather is said to have a coarse break. A very important aspect of the "break" in leather is that when the leather is flexed to cause the break to appear, it should disappear once the leather is again flattened. Since a fine break is considered to be one of the more important characteristics of leather, tanners attempt to obtain as fine a break as possible. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to prevent excessive cohesion of the fibers in the grain surface of the leather, which is one of the major purposes of FATLIQUORING leather. Break is influenced to a great extent by the amount of oil in the grain layer and increases in fineness with an increase of oil. The butt area of a skin usually has a finer break than the belly; tighter skins have finer breaks than looser ones, and a leather like calfskin will have a much finer break than cowhide. Improper methods of finishing may cause an otherwise fine break to become coarse, but the kind of tannage has little effect on break. (102, 248, 363)
breaking length
The length of a strip of paper, cut either in the machine or cross direction, or a strip of cloth, cut either in the warp or filling direction which would break of its own weight when suspended vertically. It is a value calculated from the tensile strength of the material. Under normal circumstances paper will have a greater breaking length in the machine direction than in the cross direction, and cloth a greater breaking length in the warp direction than in the filling. (42, 98, 341)
breaking strength
1. See: BURSTING STRENGTH. 2. The breaking load or force, expressed in pounds per inch, required to rupture a material, such as cloth or paper. breathing. A property of leather, characterized by a resistance to water in the liquid form but having the ability to allow the passage of water vapor. "Breathing" is considered important in maintaining the suppleness and handle of leather, and is one reason why some conservationists oppose the use of hard waxes in leather dressings.
Brethren of the Common Life
See: BROTHERS OF THE COMMON LIFE.
Bretons, Pere et Fils, Le
Two renowned producers of marbled papers of 17th century France. They produced finely veined papers, some of which, with fine veins of gold and silver, were very exquisite. The Bretons also made excellent papers stenciled with flowers on paper with a highly calendered surface. (217)
brick guard
A type of COMPENSATION GUARD, but specifically one side stitched to the text block to compensate for pocket material. (339)
brightening agents
Chemical agents at one time used extensively in leather dye batches to brighten the color of the finished leather. One such agent was sulfuric acid, which is not only destructive but virtually impossible to remove from leather effectively and completely. Another was formic acid, which, being weaker and more volatile, was less destructive. See also: P.I.R.A. TESTED. (298)
brighter binding
A movement initiated in about 1910 in Great Britain by Alexander Philip to encourage libraries to have their books bound in bright. colorful cloth, so as to enliven the appearance of the then drab and colorless bookstacks in the libraries of that time. The belief was that bright bindings meant bright cheerful libraries, whereas a library filled with dark blue and black bindings had the opposite effect. Se also: BINDING SCHEMES. (261)
brightness
Originally, a judgement of the amount of light reflected to the eye from the surface of a material, regardless of hue or color saturation. Brightness is now measured by optical comparators. Many factors affect the brightness of a material such as paper, including the degree of bleaching of the pulp, as well as the addition of chemicals. Chemically treated high-grade text and book papers have a brightness in the range of about 96 (on a scale of 100), coated papers range from about 70 to 85, while mechanical wood machine-coated papers are in the range of about 60 to 75. Newsprint is generally below 60. (17, 72)
brightness reversion
A paper pulp, and particularly a bleached paper pulp, which has lost BRIGHTNESS because of natural or artificial aging. (17)
brime
A finely powdered burnt GYPSUM. Brime is dusted on GOLDBEATER'S SKIN in order to eliminate as much friction as possible during the MOLD (2) stage in the manufacture of gold leaf. (29)
brining
A method generally used in the larger abattoirs for curing hides and skins for transportation to tanneries. After flaying. the hides are washed thoroughly to remove blood and soluble protein matter and the hair is scraped under a spray of water. The flesh side is brushed vigorously to remove surplus flesh. The hides are then hung in pits or run in large paddles in a very strong solution of sodium chloride. using 30 pounds of salt to every 10 gallons of water. This gives a very good and uniform salt penetration for heavy hides in 1 to 14 hours. The hides are then drained and piled and treated with salt in the WET-SALTING process. The purity and strength of the brine must be checked before it is reused, as it may become contaminated with halophilic bacteria. The use of a salt solution as a preliminary treatment for preserving cowhides has been standard practice in South America for many years, and has been in commercial use in the United States since about 1935. Brining, followed by wet-salting, is a more expensive method of cure than salting alone; however, it reduces putrefactive damage to the hides to a considerable extent over simple salting. (248, 306)
bristol board
A lightweight board that can be made on either a Fourdrinier or cylinder papermaking machine. There are three types of bristols: 1) index, 2) mill, and 3) wedding. They range in thickness from 0.006 inch and greater. The original bristol board, made in Bristol. England, was a pasted board made of rag content paper, but very little bristol today is of this character. Bristols are sometimes filled, but are more commonly pasted or plied, the thicker sheets being made by pasting sheets of the same stock together until the desired thickness is attained. They are designated as 2-ply, 3-ply, etc., according to the number of sheets used. The highest grade of bristol is wedding, followed by index and mill. (17, 234, 320)
British marble
A marble pattern, with or without veins, which somewhat resembles the SPANISH MARBLE. It is usually executed entirely in varying shades of black although colors are sometimes used. (241, 369)
brittleness
The property or condition of a material, such as, paper, board. adhesives etc, that causes failure of the material when it is deformed by bending. As virtually any material will fail if bent or folded a sufficient number of times, brittleness is of practical interest only when deformation producing failure is small or the number of folds is relatively small in number. Over the course of many years. high acidity in paper, and particularly acidity resulting from inorganic acids of low volatility has been suspected of being the chief cause of brittleness in paper. This acidity can be attributed to several sources: 1) papermaking procedures, e.g., excessive ALUM in sizing or excessive chlorine in BLEACHING (1), which may lead to the formation of acid; 2) ink; and 3) conditions of storage, which may allow acid gases such as SULFUR DIOXIDE to gain access to the paper, which. in the presence of heat and other conditions. may lead to the formation of acid. See also: ACID; ACID GASES; ACIDITY; ACID SIZE; DEACIDIFICATION; DURABILITY (OF PAPER); FOLDING ENDURANCE. (17, 34, 41, 348)
broad
broad fold
1. A sheet of paper which, after being folded, has the grain direction running with the shorter dimension of the paper. 2. A sheet of paper folded in such a manner that the resulting pages are wider than they are deep, i.e., an OBLONG fold or page, as distinguished from an upright page or "deep fold."
brocade
1. A book cloth, generally made from silk or cotton, woven in jacquard construction and characterized by allover formal design of slightly raised floral and figure designs introduced by additional threads in the filling. 2. In papermaking, a heavily embossed cover paper. 3. A marbled paper with a brocadelike pattern. (183)
brochure
A "stitched work" (from the French "brocher," to stitch). It is a short printed work, with or without a paper or self-cover, and sewn or stitched. (139)
broken
broken back
1. The tendency of a book to open readily at a place or places where the binding has been forced or strained, causing the book to lose its shape. This may be caused by: 1) improper opening of a new book that is tightly bound; 2) improper backing, which flattens the spine and affects its contour; 3) using paper with the grain running at right angles to the spine, resulting in leverage and causing THROW OUT of one or more sections; 4) sections, either with or without plates, that are too bulky, and are forced apart during backing, leaving ridges; and 5) the use of animal glue during the gluing process before rounding and backing, that is too cold or is not sufficiently flexible. In a TIGHT BACK leather binding, it may result in ridges appearing on the spine where the leather has been forced away from the paper. 2. A book broken completely through so that it is in two or more pieces. This generally occurs in relatively old books, particularly those of the 19th century, in which the paper and glue have become so embrittled and inflexible that when the book is opened, it breaks apart. (83, 102)
broken line
1. A blocked or finished line or rule intentionally "broken" by uniformly spaced openings. 2. A blocked line that is not solid as a result of breaks in the gold leaf. (256)
brokers
Binding agents, who were go-betweens or self-appointed salesmen of publishers or library binders, and who solicited binding business and then let out the work to the lowest-priced bidder on their list. Mason Locke Weems ("Parson Weems"), the creator of the George Washington cherry tree myth, seems to have been one such agent, working between binders and the publisher, Matthew Carey. Binding brokers, who flourished in the United States well into the 20th century, are rare today. (131, 308)
bronzed edges
A decorative edge pattern on a book produced by impressing bronze leaf on the edges by means of an engraved roller. The leaf is first pressed into the gravure and then rolled on the edge. This technique was generally executed over colored edges, with albumen or gum arabic being used to secure the leaf to the paper. Bronzed edges were employed mainly in the latter part of the 19th century.
bronze leaf
See: DUTCH GOLD.
bronze powder
A metallic powder made from various bronze or brass alloys and used principally in lacquer or varnish vehicles, or with bronzing liquid, as the so-called gold paint. The powder can be prepared to duplicate every shade of gold from a pale or lemon color to a deep coppery hue. Bronze powder darkens or discolors after a relatively short time, and this, plus the fact that the paint made from it has a lackluster, grainy quality, makes it unsuitable for use in bookbinding. (236)
Brothers of the Common Life
Associations of clerics and laymen that originated in the Netherlands in the 14th century. The reformers, Gerhard Groote and Florent Radewyns, inspired a small group of men at Deventer (Holland) to join together in community life in pursuit of holiness. The movement spread throughout the Netherlands and Germany and was influential until the time of the Reformation. One of the principal occupations of the Brothers was the production of books. but, unlike the monastery scribes, they established their book trade specifically for the purpose of supporting their organization, using the profits derived from the sale of books in their missionary work. In addition, instead of offering their works in Latin, they issued them in the vernacular of the area in which they were produced. At the Convent of St. Jerome at Ghent, the Brothers were noted for the excellence of the manuscripts and bindings they produced. Two examples of their work are embellished with a panel representing their patron, St. Jerome, kneeling before a crucifix. In the background, beyond the mountains, is a view of the belfry of Ghent, surmounted by the dragon, and the spires of three churches. Their first book was issued in 1476 from the Nazareth Monastery in Brussels. (141)
brush
An implement used for the application of paste. glue, or other adhesive liquid, powder, glair, etc., to the surface of paper, board, cloth, leather, or other material. A brush is composed of a gathering of hair or bristles (natural brushes), or some synthetic material. secured in a plastic compound and held in a metal ferrule which is crimped around a handle. A high quality brush always has the natural tips of the hairs or bristles. The various shapes of brushes are achieved by cutting, trimming, and fashioning the root (butt) ends of the hairs. A pointed brush, for example, is shaped by inserting the hairs, tips downward, in a brass "cannon," in the size and shape made for the purpose, and trimming them at the root end. Very superior brushes have a considerable hold of hair within the ferrule, sometimes as much as is seen beyond the ferrule, while cheaper brushes have but little hold. (66, 233)
brushing
The process of developing a mild luster on the finished surface of a leather by the action of a rotary brush. The term is also used with reference to freeing the surface of leather of the fine fibrous dust created by buffing—i.e.. by drawing the skins between a pair of long rotary brushes. (363)
brushing out
See: FIBRILLATION.
B-stage
A secondary stage in the reaction of some thermosetting resins, characterized by softening of the resin when heated and swelling when in the presence of certain liquids. but without complete fusing or dissolving. The "b-stage" is also characterized by a progressive increase in viscosity. The resin portion of an uncured thermosetting adhesive is usually in this stage. Also called "resitol." See also: A-STAGE; C-STAGE. (309)
buckle
1. The wrinkling near the head and binding edge of a section, which may be caused by paper that is too thick, or by too many folds in forming the section, and which may be accentuated by the grain direction of the paper being incorrect—i.e.. running from spine to fore edge rather than head to tail. 2. Book covers or cover boards that have been warped and twisted in several directions. See also: COCKLE (1-3). (131)
buckle folding
See: FOLDING
buckram
A BOOK CLOTH made from cotton or linen, usually the former, and closely woven, occasionally with a double warp. It is filled or coated and calendered to give it a smooth finish which blocks well and is reasonably durable. Originally, the term applied only to a starch-filled fabric; today, however, it applies also to coated and impregnated fabrics having a heavy base. The material used to fill the interstices and/or cover the base fabric is usually pyroxylin, but it may be starch, china clay, clay, or other nonfibrous material.
buckskin
A leather produced from the hides of male deer or elk. It usually has a suede finish and is oil tanned or alum tawed. It has a soft texture, and is pliable and reasonably strong. Examples of its use (in England) can be traced back to the 16th century. Imitation buckskin is sometimes made from sheepskin. See also: DEERSKIN. (278, 325)
buds
A decorative ornament filling a small panel on a ROLL (1), usually in the conventionalized form of a spray bearing buds. (250)
buffalo
A leather produced in imitation of RUSSIA LEATHER, but of far greater strength than the genuine leather. It is made from the hide of the large, shaggy-maned North American ox, Bison bison, and was used extensively in covering books in the United States in the latter half of the 19th century.
buffed leather
A leather from which the top surface of the grain has been removed. See also: BUFFING (2); CORRECTED GRAIN. (61)
buffing
1. A very thin innermost split of a hide, usually a cowhide, which is colored and grained to give the appearance of the outer surface of the hide. A buffing is created when a hide is split into three layers. At one time it was used extensively for linings, as well as for covering trade books. It was never used in fine bookbinding. 2. The process of producing a fine nap on the grain surface of leather by means of carborundum paper or on the flesh sides of small skins by the action of an emery wheel. In sandpapering the grain surface of leather, the sharp edges of the carborundum, or other abrasive material, cut the microscopic fibrils in the grain surface and produce a fine nap on the surface. Many of the grain defects in a leather do not penetrate into the leather nearly to the depth of the grain layer, and can be entirely removed by buffing. When a leather is buffed to a measurable depth, as it may have to be if the grain defect is very deep, it is said to be buffed; when it is buffed to a lesser depth, it is said to be snuffed. When a leather is buffed so lightly as not to impair the grain pattern, the leather is said to have a CORRECTED GRAIN. 3. The process of polishing the leather covers of a book with a soft fabric wheel. (264, 278, 325, 358, 363)
buffingnette
A water-resistant cloth made in imitation of leather. While it is adequate for the sides of books that receive considerable use, as it is stain and water resistant, it is not adequate for full covering, as it does not wear well in the areas of the joints. It is also difficult to block, and labels do not adhere to it well unless the surface is abraded and coated with shellac. (105)
buff leather
A leather which has a yellowish, cream or white surface and is finished with a soft, velvet nap. It is produced from cowhide from which the grain layer has been removed by FRIZZING. It is an oil-tanned leather. (351)
build in
building in
The process of placing newly cased-in library books between smooth or brass-bound boards and applying pressure in a standing press or hydraulic press, or applying dry heat and (considerable) pressure for a brief time (usually 8 to 15 seconds) in a hydro-press or BUILDING-IN MACHINE. Building in forms the joints, compresses the book, secures it firmly in its case and reduces substantially any possibility of board warpage. See also: CASING-IN. (139)
building-in machine
A machine used to BUILD IN the text block of a book into its case or covers. Building-in machines substitute heat and great pressure for the element of time required to set and cure the adhesive and form the joints. For intermittent or relatively small production, a single-clamp machine, such as the type often found in library binderies, is often adequate. It can build in books up to 12 by 14 by 4 inches in size, and can process up to five books per minute, depending upon the skill of the operator and the CLAMP DWELL setting of the machine. In general, the longer the dwell time, the more solid the binding, which is essentially the reason why a book built in by this type of machine is not as solid as one left in a press for a longer period of time. In edition binding, multiple-clamp machines are usually used, and can process up to 36 books per minute. In edition machines, books may be manually inserted, or fed in automatically after CASING-IN. See also: CASING-IN MACHINE. (320)
built-up lettering
Multilined decorative lettering, "built up" by forming the letters with pallets and gouges rather than by the use of hand letters. (335)
built-up patterns
Decorative patterns in blind or gold built up from individual line and solid tools. (310)
bulk
1. The thickness of the gathered leaves or sections of a book before sewing, or the thickness of the bound book before its covers are attached, or before casing-in. 2. The thickness of a sheet of paper in relation to its weight. With two papers of equal weight per ream, the one which "handles" the thicker is said to "bulk" the better. 3. The thickness of a specified number of sheets of paper or board under a specified pressure. Bulk here is important in gauging the thickness of a proposed book. 4. In papermaking in its most correct meaning, "bulk" is the ratio of fiber volume of a sheet to total volume, including air spaces which may be void or filled with loading or sizing materials. See also: BULK EQUIVALENTS. (17, 234, 261, 264)
bulked up
A deliberate attempt to make a book thicker and, therefore, of a more substantial appearance. Books, and especially novels, are sometimes "bulked up, ' i.e., printed on BULKING BOOK PAPER so that a higher price may be charged. Such paper, however, is often inferior in both strength and printing quality to a more compact paper. (256)
bulk equivalents
The number of pages per inch of a paper of a given caliper (thousandths of an inch): Caliper/ Pages 4 sheets per Inch 5.5 1,454 6.0 1,332 6.5 1,230 7.0 1,142 7.5 1,066 8.0 1,000 8.5 942 9.0 888 9.5 842 10.0 800 10.5 762 11.0 726 11.5 696 12.0 666 12.5 640 13.0 614 13.5 592 14.0 570 14.5 552 15.0 532 15.5 516 16.0 500 16.5 484 17.0 470 17.5 456 18.0 444 18.5 432 19.0 420 19.5 410 20.0 400 20.5 390 21.0 380 21.5 372 22.0 364 22.5 356 23.0 348 23.5 340 24.0 332 24.5 326 25.0 320 25.5 314 26.0 308 26.5 302 27.0 296 27.5 290 28.0 286 28.5 280 29.0 276 29.5 272 30.0 266 30.5 262 31.0 258 31.5 254 32.0 250 32.5 246 33.0 242 33.5 238 34.0 234 34.5 232 35.0 228 35.5 224 36.0 222 36.5 218 37.0 216 37.5 212 38.0 210 38.5 208 39.0 204 39.5 202 40.0 200 40.5 198 41.0 194 41.5 192 42.0 190 42.5 188 43.0 186 43.5 184 44.0 182 44.5 180 45.0 178 45.5 176 46.0 174 46.5 172 47.0 170 47.5 168 48.0 166 48.5 164 49.0 162 49.5 162 50.0 160 (52)
bulking book paper
A paper produced to give maximum bulk per unit ream weight. It is produced from a number of paper furnishes designed to impart this property, including cotton linters, rag pulp, esparto, and chemical wood pulps. Some grades contain a large percentage of mechanical wood pulp mixed with other pulps. The paper furnish is provided with little or no fillers. This paper is usually made to specifications of finish, caliper, or both. Bulking book paper picks easily and often causes difficulties in printing. See also: BULKED UP; NOVEL PAPER. (17)
bumping hammer
See: BACKING HAMMER.
bundle
1. A seldom used term applied to a printed sheet that has been folded to make a section. 2. A unit of board measure, generally of weight of 50 pounds. The actual number of boards in a bundle will depend on area and caliper of the boards. 3. At one time, a package of paper containing 2 perfect reams, or 1,000 sheets, but in today's usage, a package of paper weighing about 125 pounds and containing any number of sheets, depending on the size, caliper, and type of paper. (17, 316)
bundling
1. The process of tying up the sections of a book under pressure before GATHERING (1), for the purpose of keeping them clean, flat, and ready for gathering, while at the same time compressing them into a compact and solid state. 2. The process of gathering together a number of skins of leather, usually 12, of the same kind, weight, and grade. The total area of leather is indicated on the bundle. (179, 236, 320)
bundling press
bundling machine
See illustration A type of press used to compress the newly folded sections of a book or group of books, usually of the same title. Bundling presses are usually of three types: 1) the hand-bundling press, which consists of a floor stand on which two jaws are mounted horizontally. One of the jaws is stationary and the other movable. The group of sections with strings around it is placed between the jaws and compressed by forcing the movable jaw towards the stationary one. The jaws are designed so as to allow for the tying of the bundles while under pressure; 2) the power-bundling press, which is either vertically or horizontally oriented, and in which a movable bed is driven toward a stationary head by power supplied by an electric motor through a system of gears and racks; and 3) the pneumatic bundling press, which may also be vertically or horizontally oriented, in which the movable jaw is driven by a piston to which power is supplied by compressed air. In all three types, when the sections of several books are to be bundled together, the groups are placed between boards, bundled, and the entire group, including boards, is tied before being removed from the press. (142, 320, 339)
buried cords
See: SAWING IN.
burnish
1. The glossiness or brilliance produced by rubbing the gilt edges or leather cover of a book with a burnishing or polishing tool. See also: BURNISHER (5) (2). 2. In papermaking, to burnish or polish the surface of a paper. See also: GLAZED (1). (94)
burnished edges
The colored or gilt edges of a book which have been polished, usually by means of a bloodstone or agate implement called a BURNISHER (2). See also: BURNISHER(S) (2).
burnisher
burnishers
See illustration 1. One who burnishes the edges of a book. 2. The tools used to burnish the edges of a book. They are made of metal, agate (quartz), or bloodstone set in handles. The bloodstone type is the best and also the most expensive. Burnishers are generally available in two basic shapes—flat and toothed. They are relatively delicate tools and chip easily if handled roughly; they may be kept smooth and in good condition by rubbing them on the flesh side of a piece of leather coated with whiting, or, if too rough to be smoothed in this manner, by rubbing them on a zinc-lined board coated with a small amount of flour or emery mixed with machine oil. (66, 99, 278)
burnishing brushes
A black lead or shoe brush, having stiff but not harsh bristles, and used, after coating the edges of a book with black lead, to burnish the edges before glairing for edge-gilding. (66)
burnt gypsum
See: BRIME.
burnt sugar
One of the coloring materials which, when dissolved in water, can be used to restore the proper tone or shade to the leaves of a book that have been washed. The burnt sugar is added to the resizing bath, and the paper is "toned" at the same time it is sized. (154)
burnt umber
A dark brown pigment produced by calcining raw umber, and used in a mixture of red ochre, oil, and water, as a sprinkle for the edges of books. See also: SPRINKLED EDGES; UMBER. (371)
burst factor
The BURSTING STRENGTH of paper in grams per square centimeter divided by the BASIS WEIGHT of the paper in grams per square meter, which gives the burst factor as a numerical value. See also: BURST RATIO. (17, 72)
bursting strength
The combined tensile strength and stretch of a material as measured by the ability of the material to resist rupture when pressure is applied under specified conditions to one of its sides by an instrument used for testing the property. Testing for the bursting strength of paper is a very common procedure, although its value in determining the potential permanence or durability of paper is suspect. See also: BURST FACTOR; POINTS PER POUND. (17, 72)
burst ratio
The BURSTING STRENGTH of a material in points per pound. See also: BURST FACTOR.
butcher cuts
Damage to hides and skins caused by improper and/ or unskilled flaying, and usually seen in the form of cuts or furrows on the flesh side. In extreme cases, the cuts may go completely through the skin, thus reducing its value greatly. Butcher cuts are sometimes particularly noticeable on parchment and vellum. (363)
butt
1. That part of a hide or skin corresponding to the animal's back and sides after cutting away the shoulder and belly, and consisting of the thickest and strongest part of the skin. See also: SHELL. 2. Any type of hinge or joint used for reinforcement, or for fastening a bulky insert into a binding. (256, 261, 325)
butterstamp
See: BAND PALLET.
buttonhole stitch
An embroidery stitch used in making a HEADBAND, and executed by drawing the needle and thread from the upper through the lower edge of the core, and out over the lower thread of the preceding stitch. The stitches are repeated, sometimes in alternate colors, e.g., blue and green, to form a firm line of adjacent loops around the core. (83, 111)
C
The Roman equivalent of 100. See also: ROMAN NUMERALS.
cabinet size
See: OBLONG.
cable pattern
See: ROPE PATTERN.
cabretta leather
A leather produced from the skins of sheep which have hair instead of wool, i.e., straight-haired sheepskins. The leather is produced in India, China, South America, and Africa, the best grades coming from the latter two areas. In the United r States, the term is generally considered to indicate specifically a Brazilian sheepskin. Cabretta is generally chrome tanned and has a very fine grain and a strong fiber network. (61, 325)
cahier
A number of loose sheets assembled for binding, or bound loosely together to form a notebook or pamphlet. 2. The French expression for the signature of a bound book.
cake glue
Generally, an animal GLUE supplied in large slabs up to 3 inches in thickness. The slabs are broken into small pieces, soaked in cold water until they absorb as much water as possible, and then heated to useable consistency. Flexible (internally plasticized) glue does not have to be soaked.
calcium acetate
A chemical (Ca(C2H3O2) . 2HO), prepared by neutralizing acetic acid with lime or calcium a carbonate, and used in the preparation of other acetates and in the deacidification of paper.
calcium bicarbonate
A salt obtained by replacing only one of the two hydrogen atoms in carbonic acid (H2CO3) by the metallic atom calcium, giving (Ca(HCO3)2). It is employed in a 0.2% solution to carbonate excess calcium hydroxide used in deacidifying paper, and also to precipitate calcium carbonate into the fibers of the paper being treated. The precipitated calcium carbonate acts as a buffer to neutralize any acid that forms in the paper subsequent to treatment. (31)
calcium carbonate
A salt (CaCO3), occurring naturally, usually in sea deposition, and prepared commercially by passing carbon dioxide either through cold lime water, which precipitates the calcite crystalline type, or hot lime water, which gives the aragonite crystalline type. The calcite is the thermodynamically stable form. Calcium carbonate is sometimes precipitated into paper by suitable chemical reactions to deacidify the paper, and is also used both as a filler and a coating pigment in the manufacture of paper. (31, 67, 143)
calcium hydroxide
A strong alkali (Ca(OH)2), which can be formed by the reaction of calcium oxide (CaO) with water. If the oxide is treated with only sufficient water to make it crumble to a fine, white, dry powder, slaked lime is produced. By slaking the paste formed from the oxide with an excess of water, a suspension called "milk of lime" is formed. A clear solution of the hydroxide in water is known as lime water. Calcium hydroxide is used extensively in a very strong solution (pH of approximately 11.4) in the LIMING and UNHAIRING of hides and skins in leather manufacture, and in the deacidification of paper. In the latter use, the resulting pH is approximately 11.0, and paper so treated is easily oxidized unless the pH is reduced by exposure to carbon dioxide or the paper is treated subsequently with a solution of calcium bicarbonate. (31, 363)
calcium hypochlorite
Any hypochlorite of calcium, e.g., the normal anhydrous salt (Ca(ClO)2), that is generally found in commercial products containing 70 to 75% available chlorine. Calcium hypochlorite is used by many paper conservationists to bleach archival papers, and it is also used as an oxidizing agent to reduce the effects of FOXING. Its use is potentially harmful, as the chlorine is difficult to remove. Also known as "bleaching powder."
calcium sulfate
A salt (CaSO . H2O), very slightly soluble in water. In its natural form, it may exist as anhydrite (CaSO4) or gypsum (CaSO4 . H2O) It is used as a filler pigment in the manufacture of paper. Precipitated calcium sulfate is known as "crown filler," or "pearl filler." See also: BRIME.
calcium sulfite
A salt (CaSO3), prepared by reacting sulfurous acid with calcium hydroxide, and used as a filler coating pigment in paper manufacture.
calender
Horizontal cast iron rolls with hardened, chilled surfaces resting one on another in a vertical bank at the dry end of the papermaking machine. The paper web is passed between all or part of the calender rolls to increase the smoothness and gloss of its surface. See also: SUPERCALENDER. (17, 80)
calendered
A paper or cloth that has been given a smooth surface by passing it through a CALENDER one or more times. Paper which receives a minimum of calendering is said to have an antique finish. With more calendering it acquires a machine finish, then an English finish, and, finally a supercalendered (highly glazed) finish. See also: CALENDERED CLOTH. (143, 276)
calendered cloth
A cloth that has had a filler of starch, usually soybean flour, impregnated into the weave of the base cloth by means of iron or steel rollers exerting a great pressure. If the rolls are heated, a high gloss is also imparted. The cloth may also be embossed during the calendering process. (341)
calf finish
Originally, the smooth, ungrained finish of any animal skin tanned for use in bookbinding, and later used to designate CALFSKIN finished in a variety of grains in imitation of alligator, lizard, snakeskin, etc. (256)
calf lined
A lining on the innerside of a limp cover, consisting of CALFSKIN in lieu of the board paper. This type of lining was thin and glued to the leather cover only at the outer edges. This left the covers pliable so that the book could be rolled up. Calf linings have been used at various times, and, although they are still used to some extent today, their most extensive use was in the years immediately before and after 1900. (105)
calf paper
A colored and embossed paper somewhat resembling leather and used occasionally for covering books.
calfskin
In its broadest sense, a leather made from the skin of an immature bovine animal. In a more limited sense. however, it is considered to be leather made from the skin of a bovine animal that has not been weaned, or at least has been fed only milk, and whose skin does not exceed a certain weight (15 pounds or slightly more) in the green salted state. The heavier skins of immature milk-fed animals, i.e., those up to 25 or 30 pounds in the green state, are often referred to as "veals" rather than calfskin. The best calfskins for bookbinding purposes are prepared by tanning in oak bark or sumac tanning liquors. Its freedom from grain defects makes calfskin suitable for finishing in delicate shades of color. It may be finished rough or smooth, the latter being more common, and, as it may be without any noticeable grain pattern, it may be tooled with very little preliminary blinding in. Books which are full bound in calfskin may be described as being diced, grained, marbled, mottled, scored, sprinkled, stained, or tree, according to the form of decoration used. In addition, special styles are known as divinity, antique, law, reverse, or rough calf. Calfskin has been used as a covering material for books since 1450, or even earlier, and, up to the end of the 18th century, it was a common bookbinding leather. Thereafter, various forms of sheepskin, and later cloth, replaced calfskin as the most commonly used bookbinding material. There are two distinct views concerning the durability of calfskin. Some contend that because the skin is from an immature animal, the leather made from it cannot be durable, even when carefully selected and tanned, because the fibers of the skin are not fully developed. Furthermore, there is the argument that, since the skin is very soft, it shows scratches and mars too easily, and, when used, the book must then be varnished or kept in a box. Others, however, argue that if the skins are selected carefully and tanned very slowly in oak bark or sumac, calfskin makes a quite durable leather capable of withstanding considerable wear. Physiologically, calfskin is not nearly as weak as its detractors maintain. Although the fiber network is indeed lacking the depth of cowhide, the fiber bundles are reasonably stout and contain numerous finer fibers which are long, highly ramified, and of high tensile strength. This is because, in any young animal, the connective tissue, i.e., skin, develops more rapidly than some other parts of the body, such as the muscles. The dermal network of calfskin is therefore reasonably well developed and exhibits remarkable strength and toughness. In addition, there is no denying the fact that there are calfskin bookbindings that have come down to us in their original bindings; many are several hundred years old. In as much as the durability of calfskin before the 18th century was not in doubt, it may be that it was the lowering of tanning standards that resulted in less durable calfskin. Furthermore, the bleaching methods employed to produce light-colored skins, as well as the techniques of decorating calf bindings with acid and other chemicals to produce mottled-, sprinkled-, and tree-calf effects were probably the major reasons for its reputation of insufficient durability. See also: SLUNK; TREE CALF. (207, 291, 351, 363)
calf split
A flesh split of a calfskin, sometimes embossed so as to make it resemble the grain side of the skin. The split lacks the necessary strength to be used for anything other than linings and labels.
calico
A plain white cotton fabric that is heavier than muslin. As early as the first quarter of the 19th century calico was dyed in various colors and used for covering publishers' bindings; it was in fact one of the first cloths to be used for covering books. It is still used to some extent for lining the spines of edition bindings, although for this purpose it is inferior to several other fabrics. See: SPINE LINING FABRIC. (71, 236)
caliper
1. The thickness of a material measured under specified conditions. Caliper is usually measured in thousandths of an inch (mills or points), or, under the metric system, in millimeters. 2. The instrument used to measure the thickness of a material. See also: THICKNESS.
cambric
1. A fine linen thread used in lieu of silk for working headbands. 2. A fine, closely woven white linen fabric, used in library binding for hinges, spine linings, extensions, etc.
Cambridge calf
Cambridge sheep
A method of decorating a calf- or sheepskin binding by sprinkling on two tints, leaving a rectangular "pane" (panel) in the center of each cover. This technique was used extensively from the 1670s and again during the early decades of the 18th century. It was revived and used to a considerable extent during the second half of the 19th century. (371)
Cambridge style
An English style of bookbinding practiced largely on theological works and in university libraries. Although used elsewhere, the style was so highly favored by binders in Cambridge in the early years of the 18th century that it became recognized as their speciality, which probably accounts for the name. Books bound in this style were sewn on raised cords, covered in calfskin that was masked and sprinkled in such a manner as to leave a stained central rectangular panel, a plain rectangular frame, which, in turn, was surrounded by a stained outside frame. The books had Dutch marble endpapers and red edges. The spine was pieced with red russia leather labels and had double blind lines at head and tail on each side of the raised bands. The covers were decorated with a two-line fillet close to the edges and on each side of the panel. and with a narrow flower roll worked on each side of the panel close to the lines. There were many variations of this style, including some books tooled in gold, and some with marbled covers and sprinkled panels. (69, 154)
cameo bindings
A style of Italian binding of the first half of the 16th century, which was imitated by French binders and also by ROGER PAYNE at a later date. The style consisted of designs in relief made from dies cut intaglio, somewhat in imitation of gems or metals. Leather was the medium most often used, although vellum was also used, being pressed while wet on the die, and with the cavities being filled with a composition of lacquered paste to preserve the shape of the figures. After being attached to the center of the leather cover, they were sometimes gilt and painted. Cameo bindings were a development of the antiquarian interest in classical coins and gems, actual examples of which at first provided the sources of the molds. French examples executed for Henri 11 and Jean Grolier bore a central medallion stamped with an intaglio cut die. The design was embossed on a gilded and colored background. See also: CANEVARI BINDINGS. (110, 141, 279, 347)
camlet
To marble. See: MARBLING.
camphor
A crystalline terpenoid ketone (C10H16O), occurring naturally in the (+)-, (-)- and (±) forms. Ordinary commercial camphor is the (+) type, obtained from the wood of the camphor tree (Cinnamonum camphora), mainly from Formosa. It can also be manufactured, using pinene (C10H16) as the raw material. It is sometimes used in an effort to rid books and bookcases of BOOKWORMS, and as a plasticizer in cellulose nitrate plastics.
cancel
cancels cancellans
1. A replacement leaf or leaves, printed because of a mistake in the original printing, an imperfect page, etc., that is to replace the corresponding faulty section before the book is actually published. Cancels have been common since the beginning of printing from metal type; however, with the development of high speed printing presses, it has become more economical simply to reprint an entire signature rather than go to the expense of inserting a cancel by hand. The substitution of the cancel by either the printer or binder depends on when the mistake is discovered. If the binder is to make the substitution, the printer may mark the incorrect leaf with an asterisk to indicate to the binder that he is to cut out that leaf and tip the replacement to the stub. If the replacement leaf bears a signature mark the asterisk should precede the signature letter. 2. In bookbinding, in a broad sense, all leaves that are not to be bound in. This applies specifically to the waste sheets. (69, 131, 234)
cancelland
cancellandum
The incorrect, inaccurate, or otherwise disposal leaf that is to be cut out and replaced by a CANCEL. (140)
cancellation
The removal of a leaf, leaves, or an entire section of a publication because of an error, or for some other reason. When a leaf is removed, the remaining stub is termed a disjunct leaf. Se also: CANCEL; CANCELLANDUM. (12, 343)
cancel title
A replacement title page substituted for the original. See also: CANCEL; CANCELLANDUM. (234)
candelilla wax
A WAX found as an exudate on the leaves and stems of a plant (Euphorbia antisyphilitica) found in northern Mexico and the southwestern United States, and obtained by boiling the leaves and stems with water and sulfuric acid. It is yellowish-brown in color and is opaque to translucent. It is classed as hard wax and has a softening range at 64 to 68° C. It is used in making varnish and as a substitute for CARNAUBA WAX to impart a high gloss to leathers that are not glazed. (291)
Canevari bindings
See: GRIMALDI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA.
canton flannel
A soft cotton fabric, napped on one side, and sometimes used as a spine lining fabric, usually in library binding. The nap side is placed next to the spine. (102)
canvas
A firm, closely woven fabric, usually made of cotton, hemp, or linen, in plain weave, and produced in various weights. Canvas has been used as a covering material for books for centuries, and was one of the principal fabrics used for embroidered bindings. Its greatest use historically, however, has been for rough job bindings, certain varieties of chapbooks, textbooks published between 1770 and about 1830 in England, and some types of reference books. Today its use is virtually limited to the covering of very large books, newspapers, etc., and as a CHEMISE for leather-bound county record books and other large stationery bindings. See also: ART CANVAS; DUCK. (69, 82, 111, 264)
canvas finish paper
A heavy, durable cover paper, made with a textured finish in imitation of canvas. It is used mainly for semi-stiff covers for brochures, pamphlets, etc. (86)
caoutchouc binding
A particular (and probably first) form of ADHESIVE BINDING, invented by William Hancock, and patented in 1836, in which the single sheets were secured with a rubber solution obtained from the latex of certain tropical plants, especially of the genera Hevea and Ficus. According to Hancock's specifications, the edges of the assembled leaves were roughened and then coated with the caoutchouc, which, when dry, was followed by one to five coatings of a stronger rubber solution. When the last coating was applied a strip of cloth coated with the caoutchouc was applied in a warm, sticky condition and rubbed down firmly. Great numbers of these bindings were produced both in England and the United States from about 1840, and the process was used for many of the illustrated "table books" of the 1860s, as well as for many large folios printed on very thick paper. The process afforded both openability and durability, or so for the latter it was believed at the time. Both characteristics depended to a large extent on the purity of the rubber solution, and the degree to which it remained flexible. That it did not remain very flexible has been demonstrated by the fact most caoutchouc bindings have fallen apart. Also called "guttapercha binding," although incorrectly because gutta percha, which is also obtained from tropical trees was tried and found to be unsuitable. (89, 236)
caoutchouc polish
A caout-rubber base varnish, used occasionally in the 19th century for varnishing the leather covers of books. See also: CAOUTCHOUC BINDING. (97)
cape
Originally, a leather made from South African hair sheep. Today it is considered to be any leather made from a hair sheep, except East Indian native vegetable tanned sheep. (325)
capping up
capping
1. See: HEADCAP. 2. The process of placing a paper covering or "can" over the edges of a book following headbanding, so as to prevent the edges from becoming soiled or damaged during the subsequent operations. (237, 261)
capstan
A decorative ornament. often found on English and French head-in medallion rolls, the principal feature of which roughly resembled a vertical spindle-mounted drum. (250)
caput mortuum
See: VENETIAN RED.
carbolic acid
See: PHENOL,
carbonaceous inks
A general term used in describing a group of inks produced from finely ground carbon or a similar substance, e.g., soot or lampblack, and which are jet black and very stable. A glutinous substance is used as a binder. Such inks are the simplest of all inks to produce and have been known from the earliest times. They have no destructive influences on paper but they do present difficulties to restorers because they are so easily affected by water. The carbonaceous inks may be subdivided into CARBON INK, CHINESE INK, and the SEPIA INKS. (143)
carbon disulfide
A colorless, highly refractive liquid (CS2). It is prepared by heating sulfur and wood charcoal, or by reacting methane with sulfur vapor over a catalyst. It is used in the manufacture of carbon tetrachloride, and for fumigating books. Its customary disagreeable odor results from the presence of small amounts of other sulfur compounds. Carbon disulfide is both toxic and flammable.
carbon ink
A modified form of CHINESE INK. Carbon ink is a mixture of finely divided carbon carried in a vehicle of glue or a gum. It is extremely stable, as evidenced by the characters on manuscripts of the 7th to 10th centuries, and even Egyptian papyri, which are darker and more distinct than those of the 16th century, when IRON-GALL INK came into use. Carbon ink has no destructive effects on paper, but it does present problems to restorers because it is so easily affected by water. (143)
carbon lettering
Carbon in powdered form. used in lieu of gold leaf or other metal or foil for lettering books. particularly when the covering material is canvas, or a similar fabric. The pallet and type are heated as for gold blocking, but the type is coated with carbon and then pressed firmly into the covering material. ART VELLUM is also a suitable material for carbon lettering. In very humid climates, this type of lettering may require several days to dry sufficiently for the books to be handled. At times, carbon ink is used in lieu of carbon. (358)
carbon paper
A thin paper coated with carbon black or some other coloring matter in a vehicle of wax or an oil-soluble substance and used for making duplicate copies. It is sometimes used by bookbinders to produce a dark color on a bookbinding approximating blind tooling. Carbon paper is also used for making paper pattern layouts prior to lettering, and when the leather does not darken uniformly with water. Size must first be applied, otherwise the carbon will rub off.
carbon tetrachloride
A colorless, mobile, nonflammable, liquid (CCl4), used as a solvent and grease remover, and as a fumigant for books. It is both toxic and volatile. It also gives off chlorine, which, in the presence of glowing charcoal, e.g., a lighted cigarette, becomes phosgene, which is even more toxic.
carboxymethylcellulose
An aqueous adhesive prepared by reacting chloracetic acid (ClCH2COOH) with alkali cellulose, and used in the SUNDEX PROCESS, (198)
cardboard
A board 0.006 inch or more in thickness. It is stiffer than paper. Although the generic term "board" is used in lieu of the term "cardboard" in bookbinding parlance, the covers of many pamphlets, brochures, etc., as well as the card used to line prints, posters, etc., and also used in FILLING IN (1), are of a thickness that would fit them into the definition of cardboard. (17, 234, 264)
cardboard prints
Printed cover-, end-. and other decorative papers, produced by gluing artistically shaped cuts of cardboard to a sheet of cardboard, inking with an oil-base printing ink and pressing on the paper to be decorated. (183)
carnauba wax
A yellowish-white or green, sticky exudation on the leaves, berries and stalks of the carnauba palm (Copernicia cerifera), found in South America, and especially Brazil. It is believed to consist largely of myricyl ceretate and myricyl alcohol (C29H59 . CH2 . OH). It is used to impart a high gloss to leathers that are not to be glazed, and by bookbinders to polish the edges of books after gilding and burnishing through paper. The wax imparts a high gloss to the edges and is preferred to beeswax by some as it is less likely to streak. Carnauba wax has a softening range of 83 to 84° C., which makes it especially suitable for use in very hot climates. (195, 291)
carragheen moss
A dark purple, branching cartilaginous seaweed (Chondrus crispus), found on the coasts of Northern Europe and North America. The moss is used in the preparation of MARBLING SIZE, about 4 ounces of the moss being sufficient to make 9 or 10 quarts of size. Carragheen moss was first used in making marbling size sometime after the middle of the 19th century. The extract of the moss is also used as a thickening agent and viscosity stabilizer in some adhesives. (217, 237, 335)
cartonnage à la Bradel
See: BRADEL BINDING.
cartouche
1. An elaborate style of decoration popular in Italy about the middle of the 16th century. The decoration consists of elaborately interlaced fillets filling the entire field of the covers, and sometimes accompanied by arabesques, worked in a single line with tools cut in the shapes of flowers. 2. A term meaning literally a scroll or paper with the ends rolled up, bearing the title, and sometimes other information, pertaining to a book. 3. A frame, either plain or decorative, or a scroll, in which the title, name of the cartographer, and other particulars of a map are placed. The cartouche usually appears in a corner of the map, and in old maps it was frequently decorated with scenes, animals, armorial designs, etc. 4. A small rectangular ornament usually found on a ROLL (1), formed by one or more lines, generally with a plain center. (94, 234, 250)
cartridge paper
A paper similar in appearance to hard antique paper. It is tough, closely formed, and is usually produced from chemical wood pulps, esparto, or a combination of the two. The degree of sizing depends on th purpose for which it is to be used, and its surface may be rough, semi-rough or smooth. Cartridge paper is generally unbleached or only slightly bleached, and is made in basis weights ranging from 60 to 80 pounds. It is used for endpapers, linings, and compensation guards. The term "cartridge paper" is not generally used in the United States. The name derives from its original use in forming the tube section of shotgun shells. (17, 58, 182)
case
1. The covering material, boards and inlay of a book, i.e., a book cover ready to be attached to the text block. Edition and library bindings have cases and are said to be case bindings. 2. A box or cover made to protect a book. See: PORTFOLIO (1); PULL-OFF BOX; SLIPCASE; SOLANDER BOX.
case binding
A general term for a method of bookbinding, introduced in Great Britain in the 1820s. in which the case (covers) of the book is made separately (and, in edition binding, usually in large numbers) from the book (the text block and endpapers) and later attached to it by gluing the board papers of the text block to the inside of the boards of the case. This operation is known as CASING-IN. Case binding is distinguished from those methods of binding in which the covers are not made separately, as in craft bookbinding IN BOARDS (1). Case binding is the principal method employed in both edition and library binding. (203, 276, 355)
case-hardening
An irregular, distorted (drawn) grain in a leather, usually accompanied by hardness and thinness of the leather itself. It is caused primarily by over-tanning. See: OVER-TANNED. (306)
case hide
An expression used in Great Britain to describe a stained or otherwise colored leather, generally having a smooth, more or less glossy surface finish. It is sometimes embossed with an artificial grain. Case hide is produced from a full grain or buffed cow hide and is vegetable tanned. (61)
casein
An acid-coagulable protein, occurring as a suspension of calcium caseinate in skim milk. It is possible to isolate it as an alkali-solution white powder by treating cow's milk with either mineral acid or rennet. The acid casein is used in the sizing of paper, as a simple adhesive, in the manufacture of coated papers, and as a plastic in leather finishes. Casein adhesives are little used in bookbinding as they can only be made workable by the addition of rather strong alkalies, which makes them unsuitable for use with paper or vellum. (52, 198, 309)
case-making
A general term usually applied to the production of cases for edition bindings, generally by means of semi-automatic or automatic machines. The term may also be applied to library binding, in which case-making is carried out by hand. See also: CASE-MAKING GAUGE; CASE-MAKING MACHINE; CASING-IN. (102, 179, 183)
case-making gauge
case gauge
A gauge used in the production of identical book cases in relatively small quantities. The case is made by hand, the gauge being used to indicate where the boards and INLAY (1) are to be placed on the covering material which has been cut to size and glued. Case-making gauges are adjustable for different sizes of cases, turn-ins, and widths of inlay. (259, 261)
case-making machine
A hand- or machine-fed machine used to assemble the covering material, boards, and inlays of case-bound edition books. Case-making machines are of two general types: sheet fed, either by hand or machine, and roll fed, by machine. Roll fed machines require two additional steps in their operation as compared with sheet-fed machines, namely, corner cutting and separation of the individual cases. The covering material, however, does not have to he pre-cut. Sheet fed machines receive the covering material in the correct size for the individual case with the corners already cut. Case-making machines may be modified for use of paper as the covering material, to make round-cornered eases, to use light board instead of paper for the inlays, and to make album covers which have one narrow and one wide board, with a hinge. Modern ease-making machines can produce up to 21 cases per minute with dimensions of 5 1/2 by 7 1/2 inches to 9 1/2 by 15 1/2 inches, with extended capabilities using accessory equipment. The case-making machine dates back to the latter years of the 19th century; its greatest period of development was 1891-95. (89, 196, 203, 320)
casing-in
The process of securing the text block and attached endpapers into a case that was produced as a separate operation, lettered and (especially in edition binding) sometimes decorated. In library binding, casing-in generally takes place in a BUILDING-IN MACHINE, or equivalent, while in edition binding, it is generally done in a CASING-IN MACHINE. (179)
casing-in boards
Wooden boards cut square at the edge and lined on one edge with a brass strip that extends beyond one or both sides of the hoard about 1/8 inch. The brass extension creates the joints of the hook during the CASING-IN operation. Such boards are used when the book is cased by hand and pressed in a standing- or hydraulic press. The BUILDING-IN MACHINE has metal flanges at the edges of the jaws which accomplish the same result. See also: PRESSING BOARDS. (264)
casing-in machine
A semi- or fully-automatic machine which fits books into their pre-made cases and completes the binding operation. Semi-automatic machines require an operator to hang the books in their centers over a metal "wing." The machine then automatically clamps the book, coats the board papers with adhesive, fits the case on the text block and completes the operation. Three-wing casing-in machines are capable of processing books up to 3 inches in thickness (including covers), and, lying open, 14 inches high and 22 inches wide, at speeds up to 25 books per minute. A fully automatic machine does not require timed feeding or removal of books. It can process books measuring not less than 3 3/8 inches in height, 2 1/2 to 7 1/2 inches in width and between 1/4 and 1 5/8 inches thick, at speeds up to 35 books per minute. The casing-in machine came into existence in the latter years of the ] 9th century, and its principal period of development occurred during the early years of the 20th century. (89, 320)
castor oil
A colorless to pale yellow or greenish, viscous, non-drying fatty oil of high viscosity, extracted from beans of the castor oil plant (Ricinus communis). It consists almost entirely of the glyceryl esters of ricinoleic acid. At low temperatures it thickens; it solidifies at approximately -10 to -18° C. It is used in leather finishing processes, and, in the sulfated form, as a preservative for leather bindings. Sulfating the oil, by reacting it with sulfuric acid. allows it to react with water. This is beneficial for books stored under hot, dry conditions, as it helps keep the leather soft and pliable under conditions of low relative humidity. (173)
catalog paper
A lightweight paper, either coated or with an English finish, usually made with a considerable proportion of mechanical pulp, and used for mail-order catalogs, telephone directories, and the like. Uniformity of weight, opacity. finish, formation, and sufficient strength to get through high-speed printing presses are desired characteristics. Basis weights usually range from 19 to 28 pounds (24 X 36—500). (17, 324)
catalyst
1. A substance that changes the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed. A catalyst may increase the rate (positive catalyst), or decrease the rate (negative catalyst). The final state or equilibrium of the reaction is not changed by the catalyst. only the rate of approaching the final state is changed. Examples of catalytic action in the field of archival preservation include the impurities in paper, such as iron or copper, minute particles of which may inadvertently be introduced into the paper pulp in the beater operation. According to some authorities, these can act as catalysts in the formation of sulfuric or hydrochloric acid in paper. by assisting in the conversion of sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid, or the chlorine frequently used in bleaching paper pulp, into hydrochloric acid. Leather, also, may contain minute particles of metals which may speed up the formation of sulfuric acid. 2. A chemical substance added to thermosetting resinous adhesives to speed up the cure time of such adhesives. to increase the cross linkage of a synthetic polymer, or to accelerate adhesive drying. (221, 235, 309)
catch
A metal plate secured to the fore edge, and at times to the head and tail edges, of a book cover, and fixed with a bar, over which the clasp fits. Sometimes a pin is used in lieu of a bar. See also: CLASPS. (250)
catch stitch
1. Any type of locking stitch, such as KETTLE STITCH. 2. A stitch used to gather or "catch up" the sewing threads which pass around the tapes of a book. The purpose of this stitch is to prevent undue looseness of the sewing thread. Also called "link sewing." (83, 119)
catchword
The word appearing at the bottom of the page following the bottom line of print. It is also the first word of the following page. Catchwords originally appeared on the last page of a quire or manuscript, and were intended to he used by the bookbinder in gathering. Later, they appeared at the foot of every verso or even every page; however, their use in the printed books of Europe was never very consistent. In Italian books of the period 1470-1500 they first appeared at the end of each signature (section), and later at the end of every page. In the 19th century, their use in conjunction with signature marks was redundant and they were discontinued. (12, 156, 234, 365)
catechol
pyrocatechin pyrocatechol
A colorless crystal (C6H6O2), soluble in water, alcohol, ether, benzene, and alkalis. An alkaline solution gives a coloration with ferric chloride, which turns brown on standing in air. It can be obtained from CATECHU, a natural dye, or prepared by fusing orthobenzenedisulfonic acid with caustic soda. Catechol is the principal constituent of the condensed (catechol) tannins. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (235, 306)
catechol tannins
See: VEGETABLE TANNINS.
catechu
black catechu cutch
An extract obtained from the wood of Acacia catechu, a tree grown in Eastern India, and other areas, and used in tanning leather. It contains catechin and catechutannic acid. See also: CATECHOL; VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175)
catenati
See CHAINED BOOKS.
catgut
A tough cord made from the intestines of animals, such as sheep and other herbivores, and used at times for the core of the HEADBAND, especially when a round band is desired, and also for TACKETING, where additional strength is required for large stationery bindings. (172)
cathedral bindings
Bookbindings executed between about 1810 and approximately 1840 in England and France. The name derives from the motifs of the embellishment, e.g., Gothic architecture, rose windows, and the like. The design was either blocked on the cover, as in France, or built up by means of separate tools, as in England. The cathedral style was a revival of the 16th century ARCHITECTURAL STYLE by the 19th century binder JOSEPH THOUVENIN. (69, 347)
cationic (substances)
Substances, such as dyes, tannins, oils, etc., which ionize when dissolved in water, so that the characteristic ion—dye, tannin, oil, etc.—is the cation and has a positive charge. Cf: ANIONIC (SUBSTANCES) (305)
cat's paw calf
An acid-stain pattern on a calfskin binding, somewhat resembling the paw marks of a cat. See also: TREE CALF.
cat's tooth decoration
A form of decoration consisting of a serrated line resembling a row of teeth. It is usually impressed with a ROLL (1), and is generally used as a border decoration.
caustic
A term used with reference to the hydroxides of alkali and alkaline earth metals, such as sodium, potassium, calcium, barium, etc., so called because they possess corrosive properties. In very dilute solutions, caustics are used to neutralize acidity in paper, to control pH in the bleaching of paper furnishes, etc., and in very strong solutions in leather manufacture to lime and unhair hides and skins.
caustic soda
See: SODIUM HYDROXIDE.
Caxton, William
c 1416-1491
The English linguist, editor, printer, and publisher, who was the first to print books in the English language. Caxton was born in Kent, possibly in the village of Tenderton, traveled to London in 1438 and became apprenticed to the merchant Robert Large, who was also Lord Mayor of London. Three years later Large died, leaving the young Caxton some 20 marks, a not inconsiderable sum in those days. Possibly as early as 1441 Caxton moved to Bruges and by not later than 1446 had established himself in business there. While in Flanders (1446-76) he became a very successful merchant in the Anglo-Flemish cloth trade, and was made governor of the English Nation at Bruges in 1462. It was in Bruges that Caxton entered the service of Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy and sister of Edward IV of England. It is believed that he functioned as secretary, librarian, translator, or all three, to Margaret, and it has also been suggested that it may have been her keen desire to have books in her native language that prompted Caxton to take up the trade of translating and publishing books in English. It may have been during a visit to Cologne in 1471-72 that he first encountered the craft of printing, and it is reasonably certain that he learned the craft from Johann Veldener. Caxton returned to Bruges in 1472 and there published the first printed book in the English language, Raoul le Fevre's Le Recueil des Histories de Troyes, which he had translated in about 1473-74. It is supposed that Caxton financed the publication but that it was actually printed by Veldener at Louvain. Caxton returned to England in 1476, where he lived for the next 15 years, dying in London in 1491. Regardless of what some critics may say of Caxton's lack of scholarship and education, his place in history is deserved more because of his ability as a linguist and editor, than as a printer and publisher. Even so, he printed some 18,000 pages, most in folio size, and almost 80 separate books. He did most of the administrative work of the press through his three main assistants, Wynkyn de Worde, Richard Pynson, and Robert Copland. In all, Caxton translated at least 22 books; he may well have translated others that were never published. It is thought that Caxton probably brought his bookbinding tools from Bruges upon his return to England, because two of his stamps are very similar to those used on books found contemporaneously in the city. Caxton's stamps were used after his death by his successor, Wynkyn de Worde, and some, thereafter, by Henry Jacobi. (50, 140)
C clamp
A C-shaped, general purpose clamp that grips between the open ends of the "C" by means of a long, flat-ended screw that threads through one end and presses the clamped material against the other end. It is used mainly for holding leather or book boards while using the SPOKESHAVE. It is called a "G-clamp" in Great Britain. (183)
cedar marble
A cover marble executed by sprinkling black and brown coloring on the covers, followed by orange in various places to give a cloudlike effect. This is followed by red placed near the orange. When this is dry, the covers are coated two or three times with yellow, which is allowed to penetrate evenly into the leather. (97, 152)
cedar oil
A colorless to pale yellow essential oil distilled from the wood of various cedars (Juniperus virginiana, 1. procera, and others), and used by some restorers in a mixture of anhydrous lanolin, beeswax, and hexane. as a leather dressing. The cedarwood oil is said to act both as a preservative and as an agent which aids in forming a bond between the lanolin and wax in leather. See also: LEATHER DRESSINGS. (130, 291)
cellulose
The chief constituent of the cell walls of all plants and of many fibrous products, including paper and cloth. Cellulose is by far the most abundant organic substance found in nature. It is a complex polymeric carbohydrate (C6H10O5) n, having the same percentage composition as starch, i.e., 44.4% carbon, 6.2% hydrogen, and 49.4% oxygen, and it also yields only glucose on complete hydrolysis by acid. The portion of a cellulosic material that does not dissolve in a 17.5% solution of sodium hydroxide is termed ALPHA CELLULOSE; the portion that dissolves in an alkaline solution and precipitates upon acidification is known as BETA CELLULOSE; and the portion that dissolves in an alkaline solution but does not precipitate upon acidification is called GAMMA CELLULOSE. See also: CELLULOSE ACETATE; CELLULOSE CHAIN; CELLULOSE FIBERS; CELLULOSE NITRATE; COTTON LINTERS; HEMICELLULOSES; LIGNIN; PAPER. (72, 198)
cellulose acetate
An acetate salt of cellulose, produced from COTTON LINTERS and used in archival work: 1) as a photographic film base (often called "safety film" since it is not readily combustible); and 2) in conjunction with an adhesive, such as one of the polyvinyl resins, in laminating, heat sealing, etc. Cellulose acetate is manufactured in a wide variety of thicknesses, ranging from 0.001 to 0.005 inch, and is clear, hard and glossy. It has little tear strength and has almost the same HYGROSCOPICITY as cellulose itself; however, when moist, it does not stretch as much as paper. (31, 34, 81, 303)
cellulose chain
cellulose molecule
A term used to describe the cellulose molecule, which appears to be built up of between 150 and 1.500 very simple units, in the form of a long, thin structure, not unlike a chain. Each link of the chain consists of a slightly modified form of the common sugar, glucose; the strength of paper depends to a large extent on the continuity of these linkages. Destructive agents, which can weaken and open the individual links of the chain, cause it to break into smaller lengths, resulting in what is generally considered to be BRITTLENESS in the paper. The mechanical strength of any aggregate of cellulose fibers, such as paper, decreases in response to the reduction in chain length, the process continuing ultimately to the point where only glucose remains. (198)
cellulose ester
An ester of cellulose, such as CELLULOSE ACETATE or CELLULOSE NITRATE.
cellulose fibers
The basic raw material used in the manufacture of paper and other cellulose products. Cellulose usually exists in association with substantial amounts of other substances that are removed insofar as possible in the papermaking process. An exception to this is the seed hair fibers, or COTTON LINTERS, which exist as almost pure cellulose. The approximate cellulose content of some of the materials used in making papers are: Material % Cellulose Cotton 98 Ramie 86 Hemp 65 Jute 58 Deciduous woods 41-42 Coniferous woods 41-44 Cornstalks 43 Wheat straw 42 The cellulose fibers used in making paper have certain inherent properties which enable them to form a web, i e.. a sheet of paper. including: 1) hydrophilicity, which permits them to be readily dispersed in water; 2) a fine structure which permits FIBRILLATION; 3) sufficient fiber length to form a highly entangled web of considerable strength; and 4) the ability to form hydrogen bonds between fibers as the web dries, thus providing additional strength in the sheet of paper. (144)
cellulose film
A transparent film produced from cellulose fibers by a process that involves steeping, shredding, and converting the fibers into a viscose solution, or cellulose xanthate, which is subsequently extruded to convert it into a film. It is made in a limited range of thicknesses, between 0.00085 and 0.0016 inch, and, when rendered moisture resistant, may be used to seal documents, book leaves, etc., for protection. It is a fairly flexible film of considerable strength. (81)
cellulose nitrate
A film made from cotton waste, wood, or waste cellulose film. It is produced by the nitration of cellulose, usually with a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids. It has been used as a film base for photographic purposes, as well as to encase documents, book leaves, etc.; however, its flammability, the fact that it causes severe deterioration of the materials it supposedly protects (because of the generation of oxides of nitrogen which yield nitric acid in the presence of water), and the fact that it cannot be manufactured in thickness down to 0.001 inch, has precluded its use in preservation work. (34, 81)
cellulose varnish
A cellulose-base varnish (usually cellulose nitrate), available in an aerosol dispenser, and useful as a protective sealing film over the lettering on a book cover, if used in moderation. It is flammable. (92)
cement
1. A term meaning to bond together or to adhere with a liquid adhesive. 2. A liquid adhesive having a solvent base composed of a synthetic elastomer resin. 3. An inorganic paste. (222, 309)
center and corner piece style
A common style of decoration, essentially Eastern in origin, featuring a center ornament, circular or (occasionally) oval in shape, and often ARABESQUE, in combination with corner pieces generally made up of a quarter segment of the center ornament. The style was common on the Continent and especially in England from about 1580 to 1620. See also: CENTERPIECE. (243, 347)
center fold
See: CENTER SPREAD.
center-fold sewing
A generic term sometimes used with reference to the sewing of a book through the folds of the sections. See: FLEXIBLE SEWING; MACHINE SEWING; RECESSED-CORD SEWING; TAPE SEWING.
centerpiece
1. A finishing stamp, usually ARABESQUE, blocked in the center of the cover and generally used in combination with center pieces or corner stamps. It was a popular form of decoration in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Also called "centerstamp." 2. A piece of metal, usually embossed and engraved, and fastened to the cover of a book. (236, 259)
center spread
The two center pages of a section or, more specifically, the two center pages of a periodical issue, printed side by side on a continuous sheet so that there is no margin between them. Such a publication must be sewn through the center fold to avoid obscuring part of the printed matter. Also called "center fold." (316)
centerstamp
See: CENTERPIECE.
center-to-center
1. The distance from the center of one punched hole (punched through the paper for side sewing or fold sewing) to the center of the next hole. 2. The distance between holes punched through loose-leaf papers, or the covers of a post binding, etc. (83)
center tools
The ornamental stamps on the spine of a volume between the raised bands. Of the customary six spaces, the title is normally in space two (from the top), the author in space four, the year of publication in space six, with "center tools" in spaces one, three, five and six (just above the date). (94, 261, 371)
centipoise
One hundredth of a poise. It is a unit for measuring the viscosity of an adhesive. The viscosity of water at 20° C. is approximately one centipoise. (222)
ceramic paper fibers
Noncellulosic paper fibers produced from inorganic materials. Ceramic fibers include all refractory fibers made of alumina, zirconia. thoria, magnesia, fused silica, hafnia, berylia, titanium oxide, potassium titanate, and their mixtures, with or without silica. By definition, monooxide ceramics, such as alumina ceramics, are composed of at least 80% oxides. More often they contain 90% or more base oxides, while special products may contain 99% and sometimes 100%. The main group of ceramic fibers is composed of silica in admixture with special oxides, such as aluminum and magnesium oxides, barium, and calcium. Ceramic fibers may be produced in numerous ways, including, blowing methods, spinning methods, continuous-spinning methods, colloidal evaporation processes, vapor deposition, single-crystal and whisker methods, oxidation, crystallization, pseudomorphic alteration, etc. Ceramic paper fiber is not used in book production because of the very high cost of the fibers as compared with wood and other organic fibers; however, such papers do print and fold well and are considerably more durable. (42)
certification plan
A proposal for library binding drawn up in the 1930s by the Joint Committee of the American Library Association and the Library Binding Institute, to enable library binders to apply for certification by agreeing to meet certain requirements, including: 1. Submitting samples of their work so as to demonstrate the bindery's capability of producing so called Class "A" work (the samples being reviewed by a board appointed by the Joint Committee); 2. Proving responsibility and reliability by means of sworn answers to questions, and permitting the investigation of replies; 3. Providing satisfactory references; 4. Carrying sufficient insurance; 5. Pledging to conduct the business of the bindery fairly, treat customers honestly, and maintain minimum standards and good labor conditions; and 6. Becoming a member of the Library Binding Institute The certification of library binders is now solely under the jurisdiction of the Library Binding Institute. (131)
certified library bindery
A bookbinding establishment in the United States or Canada that specializes in library binding and meets the minimum specifications of the Library Binding Institute, as outlined in the CERTIFICATION PLAN. A certified library binder is defined as one who produces binding which will achieve two objectives: 1) meet the requirements of libraries for an end product capable of withstanding the rigors of normal library circulation or use; and 2) provide maximum reader usability. A certified library binder is required to warrant that the binding covered by his invoice is Library Binding and complies with all requirements of the Library Binding Institute Standards for Library Binding, except as noted in the invoice. Certified library binders are also required to adhere to the Trade Practice Regulation for the Library Binding Industry, maintain compulsory insurance to protect the customer's property in their custody, and participate in the industry quality control program. (131, 208)
cessing
A technique used to allow excess tan liquor to drain from hides and skins, particularly the former. The hides are piled up flat on a wooden stillage or pallet and covered to prevent overdrying the surface and edges of the pile. Cessing is also used in place of HORSING UP when it is necessary to have a flat leather with no creases. Also called "piling." (306)
chained books
Books that in the past were attached to shelves, reading desks, pulpits, pews, etc., by means of chains. From the 15th to the early 18th century, books were secured in this manner to prevent them from being stolen. The chains used for this purpose varied in length from nearly 3 feet to almost 5 feet, while the links ranged in size from 1 1/2 to almost 3 inches in length, with a width of about 1/2 inch. The problem of the chains breaking when twisted was partially overcome by the inclusion of a swivel in the middle or at one end. When the books were meant to be stood on end the chains were usually attached to the fore edge of the upper cover (and occasionally the lower) by means of a ring held to the board by a length of thin brass which was bent around the edge of the cover and riveted in place. Often, however, the ring was not used, the chain being attached directly to the clip on the cover. This required that the book be shelved fore edge out, a method of shelving that endured well into the 17th century, even when chains were not used. Books meant to lie permanently on lecterns, or the like, often had the chains attached to the bottom or top edge of the lower cover. Chains were used, it has been said, because "The thievish disposition of some that enter into libraries to learn no good there, hath made it necessary to secure the innocent books, even the Sacred volumes themselves, with chains—which were better deserved by those persons. who have too much learning to be hanged, and too little to be honest." The practice of chaining books began to die out by the middle of the 17th century when it became a more common practice to shelve books with their spines out. See PLATE 1, (46, 236)
chain lines
chain marks
The widely spaced watermark lines, about 25 mm apart, parallel to the shorter sides of a sheet of laid paper, caused by the "chain wires," i.e., the wires to which the finer laid wires of the MOLD (1) are attached for support. They usually correspond to the position of the bars or ribs of the mold to which they are often fastened. Occasionally, the shadow of the rib can be seen on either side of the chain line. Generally the chain lines run vertically in the leaves of a folio, horizontally in a quarto, and again vertically in an octavo. Sometimes, in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, this rule is reversed because of the use of a split sheet, or the use of a double mold, resulting in "turned chains." (69, 136, 225)
chain stitch
1. See KETTLE STITCH. 2. An ornamental stitch in an embroidered binding that resembles the links of a chain, and is used in working in silver and other colored threads into the binding. (111)
chain wires
See: CHAIN LINES.
chalk
See: CALCIUM CARBONATE.
chalking
1. The process of applying pumice, brick dust, red earth, or a similar material, to the GOLD CUSHION prior to laying the gold leaf on it for cutting. Chalking helps prevent the leaf from sticking to the cushion. 2. A printing defect caused by the use of an ink that has been over-reduced, or an ink that is not suitable for the paper, causing the ink vehicle to soak into the paper leaving the pigment on the surface where it can easily be smudged or rubbed off. 3. A condition encountered in some papers where fine particles of pigment break off the sheet during finishing, converting, printing, or subsequent use.
chalky appearance
The surface of a coated paper that is lacking in gloss. The condition is probably due more to the type of coating material used, as well as to the coating process, than to the degree of calendering which the paper undergoes. (17)
chamfered edges
See: BEVELED BOARDS.
chamois
Originally, a soft. pliable leather made from the skin of the chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), a small goatlike antelope found in the high mountainous areas of Europe and the Caucasus. Chamois was at one time used to some extent in bookbinding, but is seldom, if ever, used today because it is hygroscopic, and, if kept dry by artificial means, tends to become hard and prone to cracking. The original chamois was a vegetable-tanned leather. Today, the leather called "chamois" is a suede-finished leather made from the FLESH SPLIT of a sheep- or lambskin, or from sheep or lamb from which the grain has been removed by FRIZZING (3), and tanned by processes involving the oxidation of fish or marine animal oils in the skin, using either only the oils, in which case it is a full-oil tannage, or, in a first stage using formaldehyde and then the oils, in which case it is a combination tannage. In the United States, the term "chamois" without qualification, is restricted to the flesh split of a sheepskin tanned solely with oils. The old term for the full oil process was "chamoising." Also sometimes called "shammy." (170, 306, 325, 363)
chamoletting
An old term for MARBLING.
champlevé bindings
Bindings produced between the 11th and 13th centuries. The process involved cutting designs into a thin sheet of gold or copper, which formed the cover, with cavities filled with enamel. Sometimes the enamel was limited to the decoration of borders and corners. Champlevé can be distinguished from CLOISONNÉ BINDINGS by the irregular widths of the metal enclosing the enameled areas. (124, 280, 357)
charcoal drawing paper
A drawing paper produced in such a manner as to be suitable for use with charcoal or pencils. It generally has a high cotton fiber content. It is made in basis weights of 60 to 75 pounds. (17)
chased edges
See: GAUFFERED EDGES.
check binding
A general term for the style of binding in which the sheets are wire stabbed or stitched, and then covered with lightweight strawboards, or checkbook cover boards, which are lined with plain paper, marbled paper, or cloth, and cut flush. Some have round corners. This style of binding is not rounded and backed and has a tight back. Books under 3/4 inch in thickness are generally side stitched, while those over that thickness are nailed or studded. The term derives from the method of binding checkbooks for banks. (256, 300)
check pile
A procedure for obtaining the desired number of sheets in a PAD without having to count each group. The exact number of sheets is counted for one (check) pad, and, using this pile as a "check pile," the approximate number of sheets is placed in an adjacent pile. Sheets are added or removed from the second pile until the heights of the piles are the same, at which time the second pile supposedly has the same number of sheets as the "check pile." A better method is to use a PAD COUNTER (2). (74)
cheeking
The process of reducing the thickness of the head areas of unhaired skins by means of splitting.
cheesecloth
A lightweight, unsized cotton fabric, loosely woven and used to a limited extent in edition binding as a spine lining fabric. (120)
chemical wood pulp
A paper pulp prepared from both coniferous and deciduous trees, in which the LIGNIN and other undesirable materials are removed by cooking the wood with an alkaline sodium sulfide solution, or a sodium sulfite solution, leaving the cellulose fibers in an aqueous suspension of the dissolved lignins, etc. The fibers are washed and are then used "as is' to produce unbleached paper or are bleached to produce white paper. The fibers from coniferous trees are ribbonlike and have thin walls. Generally, two distinct types of fibers can be distinguished: 1) a broad fiber of a width of about 0.05 mm and a length of about 2.5 to 4 mm, and 2) a narrower fiber about 0.02 mm wide and 1.5 to 5 mm long. The fibers of deciduous trees are shorter than those of the conifers, being between 1and 1.5 mm long, but they are usually thicker. In chemical tests to determine the presence of chemical wood pulp in paper, an iodine-zinc chloride solution gives a pale violet, pale blue, or reddish blue, depending upon the type of chemical pulp. (93, 98, 143)
chemise
1. A cover of SILK or CHEVROTAIN, used in the 15th century to protect leather bookbindings. The chemise was sometimes used in the Middle Ages in lieu of binding. 2. A loose cover for a book with pockets into which the boards are inserted. 3. Broadly, the canvas covering used to protect leather-bound stationery bindings. (140)
chestnut
The wood of the European chestnut (Castanea sativa) and the American chestnut (C. dentata), from which tannin is extracted. Chestnut tannin extract was used extensively in France and other European countries, as well as in the United States, in the latter part of the 19th century and early 20th century. In the United States its use has declined sharply since the introduction of the Oriental chestnut blight (Endothia parasitica), which has virtually destroyed the American chestnut. Today Italy is the largest producer of chestnut wood extract for tanning. The bark of the chestnut is not used because it imparts a dark color to the tannin, and its high sugar content would result in a higher percentage of soluble non-tans in the extract. The usual tannin content of the southern European chestnut is 10 to 13%, or higher, which is considerably higher than that obtained from trees in northern climates. The wood does not seem to reach its highest tannin content until the trees are at least 30 years old. Chestnut extract tans rapidly and produces a firm leather. If used alone, however, it may impart a reddish color to the leather that is not desirable; therefore, it is used in combination with quebracho, mimosa, myrabolans, and valonia. Chestnut is one of the pyrogallol class of tannins, and has a naturally low pH value. It also has a relatively low salts content and a high acids content. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS. (175, 306, 363)
cheverell
A goatskin PARCHMENT that has been converted into a supple and strong leather with the characteristic bold grain pattern. It proved to be an exceptionally durable bookbinding leather. The conversion was effected by a simultaneous tannage using alum and oil, followed by intensive fatliquoring and staking. Cheverell was used in England, France. and Italy during the 13th to 15th centuries. (291)
chevrette
A leather produced from the skin of a young goat which is being, or has recently been, weaned, or the skin of an immature goat. Sometimes, any lightweight goatskin or kidskin is referred to as "chevrette." (61)
chevrotain
A leather produced from the skin of any of several very small deer-like mammals of Asia and West Africa, and used in England, principally in the Middle Ages, for chemises. Like the skins of does, lambs and other very young animals, it is soft and supple. It is sometimes inaccurately referred to as CHEVRETTE. (115)
Chicago posts
Metal screw posts having two heads, one fastened to a full length post, which is drilled and tapped with a thread, the other attached to a shorter post, which is threaded to be inserted in the main post. The purpose of such posts is to allow additional sheets to be added to the book. (256)
chicory
An herb (Cichorium intybus), at one time added to size solutions to ad just the tone of newly washed book leaves so as to make them match the shade of the unwashed leaves. (83)
chiffon silk
chiffon lining
A sheer, very lightweight fabric in plain weave, made of hand-twisted single yarns of silk and used at one time to repair and reinforce torn leaves, documents, etc. Although its weight and sheerness permit even the finest print to be legible, it is little used now because of its lack of permanence. (81, 120)
China clay
A white, powdery material arising from the decomposition of granite feldspar. The term originally applied to the beneficiated KAOLIN mined in Europe, but is now applied to all beneficiated kaolin. See also: CLAY, (143)
China paper
A soft, very thin WATERLEAF (1) paper, produced in China, and elsewhere, from bamboo fibers. It has a pale yellow color and a very fine texture. The usual sheet size is 57 by 27 inches. Is is used for proofs of woodcuts, for woodcuts to he mounted on a stronger paper, and, now and then, for superior editions of books. It is also called "Chinese paper," or "Indian proof paper." (17, 69) "
Chinese" Chippendale bindings
A class of CHIPPENDALE BINDINGS. These bindings were generally covered in red morocco, and were tooled in gold with designs representing "Chinese" motifs and symbols, following the vogue represented in the decorative arts of the mid-18th century. The bindings often featured rococo frames made up of recurving and serrated motifs forming irregular compartments and perches for beehives with bees in flight, boats, Chinese archers and spearmen, columns and pilasters, doves, flowers, grapes and other fruit, horses rising from the sea, lions supporting shields, phoenixes, etc. (347)
Chinese ink
An INK of considerable antiquity, made from lampblack or soot obtained by burning vegetable oils, such as sesame or wood (tung oil). The quality of the oil is of major importance in this type of ink. The collected soot is sifted; heated along with white, transparent oxhide, or fish glue; and pounded in a mortar until it is soft and pliable and can be molded into sticks. This type of ink, having a base of carbon, is very stable when properly prepared, and, not having acidity, has no harmful effects on paper; however, it is easily affected by water. (130, 143)
Chinese marble
A type of cover marble, consisting of solid dark brown over the entire leather cover, with whiting in spots or streaks, over which blue and then large spots of red are thrown. The whiting not covered by color is washed off when the covers are dry. (95)
Chinese paper
See: CHINA PAPER (1).
Chinese wax
A white or yellowish crystalline WAX, formed on the branches of the ash tree (Fraxinus chinensis) from the secretion of the coccus insect (Coccus ceriferus). It resembles SPERMACETI WAX, but is harder, more friable and has a higher melting point (80 to 83° C.). It is used in polishing leather, sizing paper, etc. (291)
Chinese white
A dense form of zinc white—zinc oxide (ZnO)—sometimes used as a bonding agent when coloring the edges of books. (335)
chipboard
A thin, hard-surfaced, grayish board, normally produced from paper stock, including waste papers. It has a relatively low density, and is available in the thicknesses of 0.006 inch and up. It is sometimes used in edition binding for covering boards; in library binding and craft binding, however, it is never used for anything but lining board. (256, 277)
Chippendale bindings
A style of book decoration, where the books were generally covered in red morocco, and were tooled in gold with elaborate rococo borders of swirls and acanthus leaves enclosing areas dispersed with meshes of dotted lines. Incorporated in all this were various figured tools, including dancing angels, trumpeters, doves, fruit, musicians, swooping phoenixes, etc. See also: "CHINESE" CHIPPENDALE BINDINGS, (347)
chiseled leather
See: CUIR-CISELÉ.
Chivers, Cedric
c 1853-1929
A British bookbinder sometimes referred to as the dean of library binders. Chivers developed a method of hand oversewing, in which the stitches pass diagonally through the paper; it is still in use today and is called the "Chivers method." One of the major disadvantages of the usual method of overcasting, or oversewing, groups of individual leaves which are subsequently to be sewn on tapes or cords in the usual manner of hand sewing, is that the book often has a tendency to open up and become strained between the groups; this occurs only when the paper is unusually thick. Chivers' solution was a method by which three holes are punched in each of the sections in such a manner that their positioning alternates from section to section; they are also punched obliquely through the paper to eliminate strain due to side pull. Thread passes through and returns in such a manner that every section is sewn to the next two sections on each side. Chivers was also famous for his DURO-FLEXIBLE BINDING, as well as his VELLUCENT BINDINGS. (94, 236)
chloramine t
sodium p-toluenesulphonchloramide
(C7H7CINNaO2S . 3H20). White crystals prepared from p-toluenesulphonamide and sodium hypochlorite, and used in a 2 aqueous solution to remove fox marks and stains from paper, and also for general bleaching purposes. It is applied directly to the paper by means of a soft brush or by soaking. It is very difficult to wash out and failure to rid the paper of it may result in the formation of highly destructive hydrochloric acid. (102, 265)
chlorine
A commonly occurring, nonmetallic, univalent and polyvalent element (Cl), belonging to the halogens, and used, generally in the form of chlorine dioxide (ClO2), or hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2), as a bleach to whiten paper pulp, usually in one or more of the final stages in a multi-stage sequence. Its use as a bleaching agent in paper manufacture began in 1774 but its deleterious effects, while noticed almost immediately, were largely misunderstood or ignored. Chlorine residues are extremely difficult and expensive to remove, and many chlorine compounds break down slowly forming highly destructive hydrochloric acid in the process. Chlorine is also used as a disinfectant in leather manufacture. (198, 235)
chlorine bath
A dilute solution of CHLORINE and water (or the commercial product, Chlorox, diluted with water), used to remove stains from paper, as well as for general bleaching purposes. For the disadvantages of using chlorine solutions for bleaching purposes, see CHLORINE.
chlorine dioxide
A heavy, explosive gas. (ClO2), produced by the action of chlorine or sodium chlorite, and used in bleaching paper pulp from a water solution, usually in one or more of the final stages of multi-stage sequence. See also: CHLORINE.
chlorine number
The amount in grams of chlorine gas, or its equivalent in bleaching powder, that can be absorbed by 100 grams of oven dry paper pulp in a specified period of time and under specified conditions. (17)
chlorine water
See: CHLORINE BATH.
chloropicrin
A colorless liquid (CCl3NO2), having a very toxic vapor. It is prepared by treating sodium picrate with chlorine, or calcium picrate with bleaching power, and is used at times in fumigating books.
chop cut
A method of trimming newly printed sheets before folding, in which the large sheet is trimmed on all four sides but the individual leaves are trimmed in the process of separation, after which no further trim is required. This procedure is largely restricted to economy printing. The normal procedure is to trim all four sides of the large sheet, cut it apart to separate the sections, and then trim each individual section. "Chop cut" cannot be used if the individual sheet or section bleeds. (329)
chrome glue
A light-colored, easily worked glue made from scraps of chrome-tanned leather. It is said to be inferior in strength to regular hide glue. (81)
chrome liquor
A solution of basic chromic salt used in CHROME TANNING leather. It is prepared by treating a strong solution of sodium dichromate (Na2Cr2O7 . 2H2O) with a reducing agent, such as sulfur dioxide (SO), or a mixture of glucose and sulfuric acid. (305)
chrome oxide
chromic oxide
A green, insoluble powder (Cr2O3), which is the basis for many salts of chromium used in tanning leather by the chrome process. It is also used as a light- and heat-fast green pigment. (305)
chrome retan
A process in leather manufacture in which the skins are tanned throughout their thickness by the chrome process and, subsequently, are further treated with vegetable and/ or synthetic agents. The retanning agents penetrate the skin deeply, but do not necessarily penetrate throughout the skin. See also: SEMI-CHROME TANNAGE. (61)
chrome tanning
A method of tannage stemming back to the discovery, in 1858, that leather could be produced by treating skins with basic chromium sulfate (Cr(OH)SO4). The two basic methods employed today are the one bath and two bath methods, the former being most often used. The most widely used chemical in chrome tanning is sodium dichromate (sodium bichromate) (Na2Cr7O7 . H2O), from which chromium sulfate is produced. As in vegetable tanned leather, the degree of control exercised in the tanning process has great influence on the nature of the leather produced. If, for example, the final pH of a chrome-tanned leather is too low, the leather will be flat, hard, and wet, and may show grease spots on the surface; if it is too high, the leather will probably be plump, loose, dry, and may have a drawn grain or be too soft in the BLUE SORT. It is, therefore, imperative in chrome tanning to obtain the optimum pH, i.e., 3.4 to 3.5 in the one bath method, or 3.2 to 3.4 in the combination single and double bath method, and to maintain it. The two bath method has almost been completely superseded by the one bath tannage, except in certain cases where the older two bath process is thought to give a particularly uniform tannage and a deposit of colloidal sulfur in the leather. The major characteristics of chrome-tanned leather are its blue-green color and absence of filling power, i.e., an empty tannage. Chrome-tanned leather tends to be softer and stretchier than vegetable-tanned leather, and is very stable in water. Unlike vegetable-tanned or alum-tawed skins, chrome-tanned leather can withstand boiling water and has a shrinkage temperature higher at times than 100° C.; however. it does not resist perspiration or organic acids well and is difficult to emboss. In addition, it does not take gold tooling well and is difficult to fabricate in such operations as turning-in, etc. It is, on the other hand, a very durable leather. (101, 164, 248, 306, 363)
chromium sulfate
chromic sulfate
A salt of chromium (Cr2(OH)SO4), in the form of green crystals that are soluble in water and form an acid solution. It is used in CHROME TANNING. (304)
chromo paper
A heavily coated paper suitable for color printing. Surface characteristics said to enhance color printing include smoothness, uniformity of ink receptivity, high total reflectance, and neutrality of shade, which means the paper is truly white rather than tinted. The term is not generally used in the United States. See also: COATED ART PAPER. (17, 156, 324)
circles
Finishing tools in the shape of 1/3, 1/2, 3/4, and full circles, in sizes generally ranging from 1/4 to 2 1/2 inches in diameter. See also: GOUGE. (97, 137)
circuit edges
The projecting flexible covers of limp bindings turned over to protect the leaves and edges of books, usually of a devotional nature. The circuit edge differs from the yapp edge in that the overlap of the cover is not continuous. The covering leather is turned over at head and tail, with an independent flap at the fore edge. The corners are square. This technique allows the flaps to fold flat onto the edges. Sometimes called "divinity circuit," or "divinity edges." See also: YAPP STYLE. (66, 94, 264)
citric acid
A colorless, crystalline or white powdery tricarboxylic acid (C6H8O7). Citric acid is used to remove ink, and similar stains from paper, and is particularly useful in removing iron stains. Its advantage over chlorine solutions is that, being a weak and volatile organic acid, it is much less damaging to the paper.
cl
Abbreviation for CLOTH.
clamp
A device designed to bind, constrict, or press two or more parts together so as to hold them firmly in their relative positions for some subsequent operation, to allow adhesives to set, or for trimming, printing, and the like. They may be operated by hand, mechanically, by air pressure, or hydraulically. (145)
clamp dwell
The time interval of the holding action of a CLAMP. Although "dwell time" may be controlled manually, as with the clamp of a hand-operated board chopper, the term relates more accurately to the automatic release of a clamp, such as in a BUILDING-IN MACHINE, which holds the pressure for a pre-set length of time. When a clamp does not release immediately upon completion of an operation, it is said to have a "long" dwell. The typical GUILLOTINE cutting machine has such a dwell; the clamp remains on the pile being cut until the knife has risen to a safe height, which prevents the knife from rippling the sheets on its return motion and thus disturbing the pile. (145, 320)
clam shell coverer
A machine used in edition binding to apply paper covers to side stitched books that are not rounded and backed. The machine glues the spine, rolls or presses the cover onto it, and carries the book to the cover breaker where the back and both sides along the spine are pressed by formers. Book sizes handled range from a minimum of 7 by 5 inches to a maximum of 12 by 9 inches, and up to 1 1/8 inches in thickness (with a special attachment for books up to 2 inches thick), at speeds up to 160 books per minute. (320)
clasps
See illustration The hinged fasteners of brass, precious metals, iron, etc., often elaborately chased, and intended to secure the covers of books, ledgers, albums, etc. They are sometimes provided with a lock, and are designed to hold the covers of a book closed, or when provided with a lock, to prevent opening by unauthorized persons. Clasps are attached after forwarding is completed except for the board papers, because by that time the final thickness of the book is known and any rivets on the inside of the boards will be covered by the board papers. Because a single clasp has a tendency to distort the boards, two are generally used, and are usually placed opposite the centers of the second and fifth panels of the spine. All metal-hinged clasps have to be made to fit the individual book, as a perfect fit is necessary; however, where the hinge consists of a leather strap, adjustments can easily be made. Stretching of the leather with use, thus causing looseness, can be overcome by making the strap of leather over vellum, which also provides additional strength. The use of clasps appears to be as old as the codex itself. In its earliest form, which was Coptic bindings, the clasp consisted of a strap attached to the fore edge of the upper cover and wound around the book over the fore edge several times, the bone attached to the end of the strap being tucked between the strap and the lower cover. Another method, which may actually have been used more often than the strap, consisted of the plaited thong with loops which fit over bone pegs at the edge of the lower cover. A clasp of this type seems to have been used in England at least as early as the 12th century. The strap was fastened to the fore edge of the upper cover, and the end, which had a metal-rimmed hole, was taken around to the middle of the lower cover and was attached to a metal pin. English bookbinders of the 14th century began using two straps instead of just one, something which had been done earlier and more often on the Continent of Europe. The hole and pin type was more or less abandoned early in the 14th century and replaced by clasps and catches attached to the fore edge. Initially, each clasp consisted of a strip of leather having a metal hook on one end. Later, the metal part of the clasp was the full thickness of the book and was sometimes attached to the board by means of a metal hinge. In bindings of the 15th and 16th centuries, and probably earlier, the location of the clasp is a reasonably accurate indication of the country of origin. English and French bindings usually had them attached to the upper cover with the catch on the lower, while bindings of the Netherlands and Germany had the catch on the upper cover. Italian binders often attached the clasp to the upper covers and often used as many as four clasps. The velvet-covered books of the royal collection in England in the 15th and 16th centuries often had ornamental gilt clasps, which were often combined with elaborately ornamented gilt cornerpieces and centerpieces which helped prevent abrasion of the velvet. The use of metal clasps began to decline early in the 16th century, probably because they could not be securely attached to the pasteboards which were replacing boards made of wood. The weight, size, and material of the books being published at that time did not require clasps, and clasps were no longer economically feasible for the normal run of books. In most cases they were replaced by TIES (1). Clasps made of brass were still used in the 16th century for some books which were bound with boards of wood, and silver clasps and cornerpieces were often used on small Bibles and other devotional works as late as the late 17th and early 18th centuries. In certain German bindings, however, e.g., Bibles, clasps were used continuously until the end of the 18th century. his was notably true in America, for example, where almost all German-American bindings, e.g., the Saur Bibles, were issued in calfskin over wood with two heavy claps attached to the lower cover. Brass clasps were revived during the latter part of the 19th century, mainly for Bibles and prayer books, but also for photograph albums, diaries, and the like. They were often attached to metal frames which protected the edges of boards. (83, 105, 236)
Class "A" library binding
Library binding that meets the standards set forth in the minimum specifications promulgated by the Joint Committee of the American Library Association and the Library Binding Institute. The qualification for Class "A" binding, as accepted today, is set forth, defined and regulated exclusively by the Library Binding Institute, as detailed in its Standard for Library Binding.
clay
A colloidal, lusterless, fine-grained, earthy substance which generally develops plasticity when wetted but is permanently hard when fired. Chemically clays are aluminosilicates, which do not form large crystals. The finely divided aluminosilicates, which are responsible for the properties associated with clays, are called "clay minerals." Clays with a preponderance of the clay mineral "kaolinite" are used both as fillers and as coating pigments in the manufacture of paper. Other clays are used in small amounts. Used in excess, as it is in some art papers, clay becomes an adulterant to the detriment of the strength and durability of paper. See also: ATTAPULGITE CLAY; BENTONITE; KAOLlN; PAPER CLAY. (17, 235, 343)
clay-finished paper
A paper, such as imitation art paper, coated with finely pulverized clay to impart a smooth finish suitable for halftone illustrations. Such papers present difficulty in binding, as they are difficult to sew (especially to oversew), and there is often the tendency for the clay to separate from the base paper, especially under humid circumstances or if the paper becomes wet. In addition, they are unusually stiff and frequently must be scored. (52, 278)
clay tablets
The earliest form of the "book." Clay tablets were generally used for records and were inscribed in cuneiform writing on wet clay, which when hardened was usually protected by a cover (outer shell), also of clay, which was inscribed with a copy, abstract, or title of the contents. (12, 156)
cleaning
A general term used to describe the removal of mud, dirt, dust, grease, stains, etc., from the covers or leaves of a book, map, print, etc. Cleaning is done in a variety of manners, depending on the nature of the soiling, the material soiled, and the facilities available. It may range from gentle rubbing with bread crumbs to complete washing and restoration. (173, 335)
cleaning off
A term descriptive of a more or less obsolete process of removing excess adhesive from the spine of a book subsequent to lacing-in. Cleaning off is generally done by applying paste to the spine, and, when the glue has softened, scraping off both paste and excess glue with a CLEANING-OFF STICK or plow trimmings. Once a book has been rounded and backed and its shape has been set, the glue on the spine, other than that between the sections, is not required, and, in fact, should be removed to permit greater openability of the book and also to clear the sections of excess glue as a consideration of the binder of the future who may have to rebind the book. Cleaning off also helps in setting the shape of the spine and makes for a cleaner, smoother spine—factors which are very important in the case of a tight back binding. The increasing use of resinous adhesives in hand binding, such as the polyvinyl group, in lieu of hot glues, has meant that cleaning off has become more difficult, if not impossible, even though the use of these adhesives makes shaping the spine of even greater importance. The plasticized polyvinyls are neither softened by paste nor are they soluble in water; furthermore, they do not seem to affect openability adversely. If, however, removal is necessary, they are alcohol soluble. (83, 236, 261)
cleaning-off stick
A long, thin stick with a rounded but not pointed end, used to clean off excess animal glue from the spine of a book. See also: CLEANING OFF. (172)
clearing
The process of lightening the color and removing metallic stains from the grain surface of newly tanned leather. Clearing is done by drumming the leather in a cold solution of weak acid, e.g., a.25 or 1% solution of oxalic (H2C2O4) or sulfuric (H2SO4) acid; if heavy STRIPPING (1) or clearing is required, or if the original tannage was not satisfactory for the leather required, it is not uncommon to retan the leather at this time. (306)
cleat
See: KERF.
cloisonné bindings
Enamelled bindings produced during the 11th century, mainly by Greek and Italian craftsmen. Cloisonné is a technique of surface decoration in porcelain enamel on metal, in which each color area is surrounded by a thin line of metal, flush with the surface of the enamel. Thin fillets of flattened wire are set on edge and soldered to the metallic base in the desired pattern. The cloisons, or cells, are then filled with a colored vitreous composition, fired, ground smooth, and polished. Cloisonné can be distinguished from CHAMPLEVÉ BINDINGS by the uniform thinness of the metallic lines. (124, 280, 347)
closed assembly time
The time interval between the completion of assembly of the parts to be adhered and the application of heat, pressure, or both. See also: ASSEMBLY TIME; OPEN ASSEMBLY TIME. (309)
closed bolts
closed folds closed sections
Any fold in a section that is not perforated or cut during the process of folding, or before the binding process is completed. See also: BOLT. (256)
closed joint
That type of JOINT (1) which is formed when the covering boards are laced on, i.e., where the boards are right up to the backing shoulders. Also called 'tight joint." See also: FRENCH JOINT; LACING-IN; SUPPORTED FRENCH JOINT. (12)
close formation
The closeness of texture and FORMATION of a sheet of paper, i.e., a sheet in which the formation is uniform and free from a WILD (1) or porous appearance when viewed by transmitted light. It is frequently the sizing or loading agents that "close" the sheet by filling the interstices between fibers. A well-closed sheet has more RATTLE and hardness, and generally greater opacity. (42)
cloth
A generic term for all of the fabrics employed in bookbinding and conservation. Cloth is made by weaving, felting, knitting, knotting, bonding, or crocheting natural or synthetic fibers and filaments, in various textures, finishes, and weights. It may be plain, filled, coated, or impregnated. Woven cloths, with the exceptions of certain "double warp" cloths, have a warp (the threads that run the length of the cloth over and under the filling), and a filling, also called the weft, running across the grain at right angles to the warp. Both are generally expressed in number of yarns per inch. Since the number of threads in the warp is generally greater than the filling, the strength of a cloth is greater in the direction of the warp (or "grain" of the cloth). Cloth is made from a wide variety of animal, vegetable, and synthetic fibers. Animal fibers include those obtained from animal hair—e.g., wool—and those obtained from insects, such as silk. Vegetable fibers include vegetable hairs, e.g., cotton; bast fibers from the stems of plants, such as flax, hemp, jute, etc.; and fiber bundles, such as sisal, esparto, straw, etc. The fibers most often used in bookbinding are cotton, flax, and silk. See also: BOOK CLOTH. (52, 102, 341)
cloth boards
1. An old term for PRESSING BOARDS used to create the joints of a case binding during the casing-in operation. 2. An obsolete term for the boards of a book. 3. A term sometimes used to indicate a book bound in cloth. 4. See: CLOTH-LINED BOARD. (256)
clothbound
A book bound in full cloth with stiff boards.
cloth-cased book
A case binding having cloth as the covering material. The term is usually restricted to an edition or library binding, particularly the former. (154, 339)
cloth-centered
A term applied to a type of duplex paper or board, one having a cloth core (or center), usually canvas, linen, muslin, etc., with paper laminates on both sides. It is used where great strength, resistance to wear, and folding endurances are required, as with large maps. (58, 156)
cloth graining
The all-over patterns imparted to cloth to achieve a certain effect. Cloth is grained or embossed, as it is also called, by means of heated flat embossing plates, when done by the piece, or by heated engraved rollers when done by the roll. Grain patterns include rib, wave, ripple, dotted line, diaper, patterned sand, morocco, sand, pebble, crackle, frond, and numerous others. (69, 341)
cloth hinges
1. Cloth joints extending from the spine of the text block to the insides of the boards of the book, or between split boards. Such hinges are simply an extension of the spine lining fabric. 2. Any cloth or muslin reinforcement of the first and last sections which joins the endpapers to those sections. 3. The board-stiffened, cloth covered "lips" fastened into loose-leaf covers for use in conjunction with metal fasteners or posts. 4. Any cloth jointing used to bind in heavy inserts. (256)
clothings
The strips of leather, cloth or parchment (or vellum) which are glued to the spine of a stationery binding between the webbings, both to strengthen the spine and help maintain its shape. Also called "strappings. " (82)
clothing up
See: CLOTHINGS; FIRST LINING; SECOND LINING; SPINE LINING (1); TRIPLE LINING.
cloth-jointed endpaper
An endpaper that is reinforced at the fold by means of a strip of cloth. The cloth joint is used where reinforcement or extra strength is required and the appearance of the cloth strip is not objectionable. For maximum effectiveness the sewing to the text block should be through the cloth. The sewing may be concealed by inserting the cloth joint into a zig-zag; however, as this type of endpaper is utilitarian and used mainly for large account books, this is seldom done. See also: LIBRARY STYLE ENDPAPER. (343)
cloth-lined board
A board backed with linen or linen canvas. Such boards are used where additional strength is required but additional thickness is not desirable. See also: CLOTH-CENTERED. (58)
cloth printing
Book cloths decorated by letterpress, offset, or gravure printing. In the latter two processes, even full color photographs and artwork can be printed on a suitable cloth. The picture-cover bindings used by library binders are an example of cloth printing. (234)
cloth stiffened cover
A style of binding consisting of a cloth cover secured to the spine of a book and stiffened on the sides with thick paper or board inserted between the cover and the endpapers. See also: PAPER-STIFFENED COVER. (343)
cloth stubs
Linen or muslin strips bound into a book, usually during sewing, as a strengthening medium for heavy inserts.
cloth tooling
The process of tooling in gold on a cloth binding. As with leather, glair is required, and, in addition, greater pressure is required because the surface of cloth is harder, especially the surface of a filled cloth. Pyroxylin impregnated cloth or imitation leather sometimes has to be washed with methylated spirits before being tooled. (54)
cloth weight
The weight of a given cloth, measured in ounces per square yard, or ounces per linear yard, depending on the cloth. Starch filled book cloths range from 1.7 to 7.0 ounces per square yard, vinyl coated fabrics from 14 to 31 ounces per linear yard (with a per linear yard allowance of minus 1 ounce to plus 2 ounces), and pyroxylin-coated cotton fabrics from 5.0 to 28.5 ounces per linear yard. The Library Binding Institute specifications for pyroxylin-impregnated buckram call for a cloth of not less than 7.9 ounces per square yard. (209, 341)
cloudy
cloud effect
See: WILD (1).
club bindery
A fine hand bindery founded in 1895 by Edwin Holden, Robert Hoe, and other wealthy American bibliophiles, most of whom were members of the Grolier Club. The purpose of the Club Bindery was to provide American bibliophiles with bookbindings of a quality equal to those available in Europe, thus avoiding the delays and other inconveniences of having to send books to Europe to have them bound. William Matthews was given the responsibility of organizing the shop, and he proceeded to hire the Clubs' first craftsmen, Frank Mansell, finisher, and R. W. Smith, forwarder. Other craftsmen employed by the bindery included Henri Hardy and Leon and Paul Maillard, French finishers; Adolf Dehertog and Charles Micolci, a coverer and assistant finisher, respectively; Mary Neill, sewer; Anna Berger, mender, repairer, etc.; and others. The Club Bindery exerted a considerable influence on fine binding in America; unfortunately, however, not even the wealthiest of the stockholders had the resources to supply sufficient work to keep the bindery going. Efforts to transfer ownership of the club to the employees failed and the Club Bindery went out of existence in April of 1909. (331)
c m pattern
The code name for a small pebbled pattern in a book cloth.
coal tar dyes
See: ANILINE DYES.
coated
Paper or board which has had its surface modified by the application of clay or other pigment and adhesive materials, or other suitable material, with the intent of improving its finish in terms of printability, color, smoothness, opacity, etc. The term is also applied to lacquered or varnished papers and book cloth, as well as other covering materials.
coated art paper
A coated paper particularly suitable for printing, especially halftones where definition and detail in shading and highlights are an essential consideration. It is usually a paper of good quality, with a high brightness and a glossy, highly uniform printing surface. (17)
coated cover paper
A paper made in heavy weights and used for the covers of pamphlets, catalogs, etc. It is usually coated on both sides and is available in white and colors, with a dull or high finish. Good folding strength is an essential property. (17)
coated one side
See: SINGLE COATED PAPER.
coating
The mineral substances used to cover the surface of a paper or cloth for the purposes of creating a new surface having certain desirable properties. This property in paper is usually that of printability, but may also be for purposes of decoration. In cloth it is usually used to increase strength and water resistance, but its decorative effect may actually sometimes be of greater importance. The coating material fills the interstices of the cloth or the minute "hills and valleys" which are present in the surface of even highly calendered paper. (143, 323)
coating clay
A CLAY used to coat paper. Coating clays are of a smaller particle size and higher brightness than filler clays. It is a refined clay, usually KAOLIN, that meets specifications. Freedom from grit, correct particles, good color and brightness, low viscosity, and purity of mineral type are among the requirements. (17)
"Cobb" paper
A paper named after Thomas Cobb, an English papermaker, who introduced it about 1800. The paper is thin, finely textured, wove, and generally somewhat drab in color, and subject to considerable stretching when wet. During the first half of the 19th century it was used extensively for the covers of "boarded" books, and large quantities were used for the endpapers of economy leather bindings in the last half of the 19th century. (94, 236, 371)
Cobden-Sanderson, Thomas J.
1840-1922
See illustration An 1892 binding by Thomas J. Cobden-Sanderson on an 1841 copy of J.R. Lowell's A Year's Life. Reproduced from Bookbindings by T.J. Cobden-Sanderson, printed by the Spiral Press, 1969, for the Pierpont Morgan Library. (18.3 cm. by 11.5 cm. by 1.5. cm.) An English lawyer who left the legal profession to take up bookbinding, working for six months under Roger de Coverley before opening his own shop. Cobden-Sanderson produced some 100 bindings, and his work was generally considered to be superior to that of his contemporaries. His forwarding was excellent, and his finishing was skillfully designed and executed, and noted as much for its restraint as for its elaboration. He produced these bindings with the use of only a relatively few simple tools worked in intricate combinations. He designed his own tools, and, with the exception of sewing and edge gilding, did all of his own forwarding. Cobden-Sanderson signed his bindings with the initials C S and the date, usually on the doublure, a practice widely imitated since by craft binders. Cobden-Sanderson's binding had a highly beneficial influence on the binding of his day. To a certain extent, he started bookbinding on a path away from the situation in which the vast majority of bookbinders seem unable or unwilling to consider new approaches, except within the narrow limits of accepted methods. His influence on his contemporaries was considerable, and it is not unreasonable to maintain that his influence is being felt to this day. Cobden-Sanderson gave up his own bindery in 1893 to establish the Doves Bindery, originally for the purpose of binding the publications of William Morris' Kelmscott Press. He did no more binding from this time, but restricted his activities to creating the designs and supervising the work of the bindery. (2, 94, 236, 281, 347)
cochineal
A red dyestuff obtained from the dried bodies of the female of the insect Dactylopius coccus. The deep red color of the dye stems from carminic acid (C22H22O13). Cochineal was used extensively in the 19th century in the production of red marbling colors and scarlet lakes. It is also used in the dyeing of wool and silk. (97, 235)
Cockerell, Douglas Bennett
1870-1945
An English bookbinder, first apprentice to THOMAS J. COBDEN-SANDERSON. Many of Cockerell's bindings are elaborately tooled with symmetrical arrangements of conventionalized flowers and leaves, sometimes within compartments formed by interlaced lines which often flow from the raised bands. This style, which he apparently originated, gives spine and covers unity, and shows that the designs were conceived essentially in terms of a book cover. His interlacing patterns usually have no loose ends, and his plant forms appear to expand. Small spaces are filled in with gold dots, and butting lines are strengthened by a thorn, often with a dot at each side. Cockerell was not only a fine bookbinder but also performed a service in his teaching and writing, pointing out some of the destructive methods then being used by binders, such as excessive paring of leather and thinning of slips, headbanding with inadequate tying down, the use of acids on leather to create decorative effects, etc. He also called for sound principles in construction and the use of chemically and mechanically sound materials. He encouraged the use of native-dyed goatskins for covering, and did much to establish the use of the ZIG-ZAG ENDPAPER, which until recently was used extensively by craft binders. He also was aware of the merits of alum-tawed skin, and his use of it in rebinding manuscripts, and particularly his use of tawed goatskin on the Codex Sinaiticus, helped establish the reputation of durability which this type of skin enjoys today. He also promoted the use of rough edge gilding (See: ROUGH GILT). Cockerell's publications included Bookbinding and the care of books, Some notes on bookbinding, and Bookbinding as a school subject. (94, 217, 236, 347)
Cockerell, Sydney
1906-
A British bookbinder and senior partner of Douglas Cockerell & Son, a firm established by his father DOUGLAS COCKERELL. Cockerell has designed and fabricated marbling equipment, and has been largely responsible for the revival of the art of marbling paper. He is also the inventor of the pneumatic ram used in tooling, the ball bearing fillet, and the tract-guided fillet. In addition, he has contributed to the knowledge of book structure, e.g., the idea of using a free guard around the first and last sections of the text block and also the use of free guards around the folds of vellum sections. He assisted with the repair and binding of the Codex Sinaiticus, and has repaired and bound several early manuscripts, including the Codex Bezae. Cockerell is an honorary member of the Society of Scribes and Illuminators, a Fellow of the International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, and a Master of the Art Workers Guild. His publications include Marbling paper, the appendix to Bookbinding and the care of books, and The repairing of books. He has also contributed to several handbooks and encyclopedias.
cockle
cockled
1. A wrinkled or puckered condition in a sheet of paper or board (or vellum) caused, in the case of paper or board, by nonuniform drying and shrinkage, or from heat and humidity, and, in the case of vellum, by humidity. 2. A condition of the paper in books caused by excessive humidity and wetting. Cockling in books is magnified significantly if the grain direction of the paper is not parallel to the binding edge. 3. A term also applied to book covers (boards) rising, pulling, waving or curling, and caused by incorrect grain direction of the covering cloth, board paper, or the board itself, or by the use of the wrong type of adhesive or too much adhesive. 4. A warty growth in sheepskin. (98, 139, 156, 335)
coconut oil
A nearly colorless, fatty oil extracted from coconuts of the palm (Cocus nucifera), or from copra, and used to make gold leaf adhere to the surface of the covering material before impressing the heated tool or die.
codex
caudex codices
An ancient book composed of leaves of writing material fastened together so as to open like a modern book, as distinct from a SCROLL (1) or VOLUMEN, which it superseded. It was introduced originally in the 1st century A.D. The English word derives from the Latin caudex or codex, meaning a tree trunk or stem stripped of bark. Originally, the name was applied to two or more tablets of wood, metal, or ivory, hinged together with rings, the inner sides of which were covered with wax which could be inscribed with a stylus. Later on the term was applied to books of this format made of papyrus. vellum, or parchment. Although papyrus usually appeared in the form of a scroll, and parchment and vellum in the form of the codex, there was a brief intermediate stage, the papyrus codex. This came at a time when parchment was not yet fully accepted, partly because it was thought to be a somewhat vulgar material, and partly because, when the codex was new, it was not realized that papyrus was not really suitable to that format. Scribes and bookbinders have long attempted to match the sides of materials forming the leaves of books. The early scribes were concerned with the arrangement of the sides of papyrus, which were different because of the placement of the strips, and therefore the orientation of the fibers, during manufacture. When the number of sheets of papyrus were placed one upon another with each one the same way up, and were then folded down the middle to make a section, the first half of the section had the horizontal lines uppermost, while the second half had the vertical lines uppermost. This method was sometimes adopted, whereas in other cases the sheets were alternated so that horizontal faced horizontal, and vertical faced vertical. In the case of vellum, the practice is to arrange the leaves so that flesh-side faces flesh-side and grain-side faces grain-side, in much the same manner as such papers as azure are faced light side to light side and dark side to dark side. Even modern day book papers have sides, a felt side on the machine-made papers and a wire side on hand-made papers. (94, 123, 192, 236, 365)
coffee
The common beverage obtained from the plant, genus Coffea, and used by some restorers to tint the leaves of books that have been washed and/or bleached, so as to tone them to the shade of those leaves that were not treated. (335)
cohesion
The union of the particles of one substance by means of primary and secondary valence forces. As applied to an adhesive, cohesion exists when the particles of an adhesive (or the adherend) are held together. Cf: ADHESION. (309)
coil binding
coiled binding
See: SPIRAL BINDING.
cold flow
See: CREEP.
cold glue
Synthetic adhesives that do not require heating and which effect adhesion simply by drying. Cold glues are being used more and more in bookbinding, particularly in library and hand binding. See also: RESINOUS ADHESIVES; FISH GLUE.
cold gold
See: GOLDMARK.
cold pressing
A bonding operation in which the parts to be joined are subjected to pressure without the application of heat. In hand binding, virtually all pressing comes under this definition, whereas in edition and library binding, some pressing operations require the application of heat. (309)
cold-setting adhesive
An adhesive that sets at a temperature below 20° C. (68° F.). Most of the adhesives used in bookbinding fall into this category.
collagen
The principal constituent of the fiber-network layer of hides and skins used in producing leather. Collagen is organized in long, wavy bundles which vary in diameter from abut one to twenty microns. These bundles branch in a complex and random manner to form a three dimensional network upon which many of the qualities of leather depend, and it is this complex network of fibers which provides leather with its unique character. Collagen is a protein of the scleroprotein class, which is the most important constituent of the connective tissue of an animal. The molecules (14 X 2900 Å) appear to comprise a triple helix of linear polypeptide strands, composed of glycine, proline, and hydroxyproline. When collagen is boiled in water, the strands separate and undergo partial hydrolysis, yielding gelatin. (291, 363)
collate
To put the leaves, issues, or sections of a serial publication or book in the correct order; to make certain that no maps, charts, illustrations, etc., are missing; to determine if margins are adequate for the desired type of sewing, as well as for trimming; to note tears, or other damage to leaves in need of repair; and to determine the general condition of the publication, including the paper on which it is printed, the grain direction of the paper, the presence of bled illustrations, and the need for pocket material, stubs, guards, etc., for the purpose of selecting the most appropriate binding style.
collating mark
See: BLACK STEP.
collation
1. That part of the description of a book, other than its contents, as a physical object. Collation gives the number of volumes, pages, columns, leaves, illustrations, photographs, a maps, etc., as well as the size and format. 2. The process of comparing minutely, page by page, line by line, or even symbol by symbol, either visually, or by means of electro, electromechanical, or chemical means, in order to determine whether or not two books are (more or less) identical copies or variants. (69, 156)
collet hammer
See: BACKING HAMMER.
color
1. The multiple phenomena of light, manifest in the appearance of objects and light sources that are specified and described totally in terms of a viewer's perceptions pertaining to hue, lightness, and saturation for physical objects, and hue, brightness, and saturation for sources of light. The normal human eye is sensitive to a range of wavelengths from approximately 3.8/10,000 to 7.6/10,000 mm., with the longest wavelength being perceived as red, followed in descending order by orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. These are called Newton's spectral colors, i.e., they are seen when a beam of sunlight is split into its component parts, as it passes through a prism. Notwithstanding this separation, however, a precise limit for any single color cannot be made because the spectrum undergoes a continuous transition throughout the series. If the human eye perceives all seven kinds of light in the spectrum, and in the same proportions, the "color" seen is white. The color of a particular object is usually contingent on the white light striking the surface of the object and being completely or at least partially absorbed in the surface of the material, with the remaining light being reflected from it. Consequently, when a person sees the color "red," for example, it means that all of the incoming wavelengths (white light) have been absorbed by the surface of the object viewed except those wavelengths which constitute the color we have designated as red. If the light reflected from the surface of the object is allowed to pass through a further colored layer before reaching the eye, such as, for example, a transparent yellow film, more light will be absorbed, and the result will be a mixed color, i.e., orange. This process is called "subtractive color mixture," or color obtained by successively eliminating light of different wavelengths from white light. Pigments, as well as dyes and inks, are mixed with one another to create new hues according to the subtractive system. In theory, any chromatic hue may be obtained by a mixture of the three primary colors. In practice, however, many hues can only be approximated by mixing primaries. See also: COOL COLORS; FAST COLORS; FUGITIVE COLORS; WARM COLORS. 2. Pigment or aniline colors used on the edges of books or on endpapers for tinting or coloring purposes. 3. The suspension or slurry of the materials for use in the pigment coating of paper. (17, 140, 233, 234, 350)
colored brushed top
The decoration of the head edge of a book by means of coloring and brushing with a stiff brush. (343)
colored burnished top
The decoration of the head edge of a book by means of coloring followed by burnishing. (58)
colored edges
The edge or edges of a book that have been decorated with water colors or dyes applied to the edge or edges and usually burnished. The colors are generally mixed with thin glue and edge gilding size. The most commonly used colors are red, yellow, green, and blue; brown, black and pink have also been employed. If only one edge is colored, it is usually at the head. Coloring the edges of books appears to be virtually as old as the codex itself, the earliest known example being purple edges on a 4th century book. Red, ochre, and yellow were often used in the 15th to 17th centuries, while solid red edges sprinkled with yellow were popular in the first half of the 16th century. Colored edges have been common to the present day in miscellaneous binding and from the late 19th century on edition bindings. Although the coloring of edges appears to be purely for decorative effect, its actual function has always been to protect the edges from dust, dirt, and handling. See also: ANTIQUE EDGES; FORE-EDGE PAINTING; GILT EDGES; MARBLED EDGES; RED UNDER GOLD EDGES; ROUGH GILT; SPRINKLED EDGES. (161, 236, 335, 343) Primary colors are: red, yellow, and blue. Secondary colors, derived from primary colors, are: Primary Colors Secondary Colors red and yellow orange yellow and blue green red and blue purple Tertiary colors, derived by combining primary and secondary colors, are: Primary Colors Secondary Colors Tertiary Colors red and yellow orange citrine yellow and blue green red and yellow orange russet red and blue purple yellow and blue green olive red and blue purple
colored endpapers
Generally, tinted endpapers made from handmade paper. Colored or tinted endpapers appear to have been first used sometime near the end of the 16th century. Some of the earliest examples were printed with small repeated patterns that sometimes require up to three woodblocks for their execution. Of these papers, probably the greater number are of Dutch or German origin, although many are English. The Italian colored endpapers are generally very well done, often bearing small patterns devised on a geometrical scale. In the execution of these papers, the color was used in a very liquid form, producing a kind of blotted effect. In the 18th century these papers were also used for covering inexpensive trade bindings. (172)
colored inks
Inks of various colors used for both printing and writing. Numerous dyes and pigments have been used in the manufacture of these inks. Those made from pigment and vegetable colors were used for hundreds of years, but are rarely used today. Inks made from minium (red lead), red ochre (rubrica) or vermillion were used by the Romans, while in the middle ages verdigris or metallic inks (powdered gold or silver in a gum) were often used. From about 1600 to the time the first use was made of inks produced from alizarin or aniline dyestuffs (1861), natural indigo, logwood, cochineal, and similar vegetable pigments were commonly used ingredients in colored inks. Inks made from synthetic dyestuffs. while inert in solutions of the dye and water, and therefore not harmful to paper, are not nearly as permanent as iron-gall or carbon inks, although they are more permanent than the early synthetic dyestuffs. (143)
colored paper
Paper colored on one or both sides during manufacture by means of coloring pigments. When its use is to be for cover papers, endpapers, etc., the shade may range from light to very dark; for printing purposes, however, the usual colors are the light shades, since a dark ink is not very legible on too dark a paper. and printing very light inks on dark paper is not generally practical as two impressions are usually required to obtain adequate opacity. Duplex papers are those with different colors on the two sides of the sheet. (, 204)
colored paste-papers
Decorative endpapers produced by mixing color with paste and soap and spreading the mixture over two sheets of paper, which while still wet, are pressed together. When separated, the transfer of color from the sheets produces a mottled effect on each. Colored paste-papers are sometimes used for covering books, although they have little water resistance unless waxed. Green, red, and blue are among the most commonly used colors. See also: COLORED ENDPAPERS; PASTE PAPERS. (172, 371)
colored printings
The name of an inferior quality of paper, containing a considerable percentage of mechanical wood pulp and used for the covers of pamphlets and similar publications. (156)
colored under gilt
The edge or edges of a book gilded over a coloring (usually red) of dye or water color. Pigment colors are generally unsuitable for this decoration. Colored under gilt is used extensively for Bibles and devotional works. (343)
color fastness
That property of a pigment or dye, or the leather, cloth, paper, ink, etc., containing the coloring matter, to retain its original hue, especially without fading, running, or changing when wetted, washed, cleaned; or stored under normal conditions when exposed to light, heat, or other influences. Color fastness in paper is measured with a fadeometer, and in cloth by a launderometer. See also: FAST COLORS; FUGITIVE COLORS. (17, 209)
colorimeter
An instrument for measuring or specifying color by means of comparison with synthesized colors. i.e., by reference either to other colors or to complex stimuli, not in general identical with the actual color stimulus, and giving results not independent of abnormalities in the color vision of the observer. The typical colorimeter has a built-in standard light source, three colored filters, photoelectric cells or phototubes, a standard reflecting surface, and, in modern instruments, photoelectric cells and electronic circuits to replace the human eye as the receptor. The results of a colorimeter examination are expressed as "chromaticity coordinates. " (197, 233)
color lake
See: LAKE.
color reversion
See: YELLOWING.
comb binding
A form of MECHANICAL BINDING consisting of a plastic strip on the spine from which curved prongs extend. They are inserted into holes punched into the leaves to be held. The name derives from the resulting "comb" appearance of the binding. This type of mechanical binding provides a more-or-less solid spine on which the title of the publication may be printed. Its disadvantages, however. are many: leaves may be removed quite easily by unauthorized persons, and groups of leaves often slip from the grasp of the flexible prongs. In addition, leaves tend to tear from the binding because the large, usually rectangular, slots leave relatively little paper along the line of the punched holes. (316)
combed edges
The edges of a book decorated with black, red, blue, and yellow colors, in the ratio of 1:2:3:4 respectively, in a combed, figure-eight effect.
combination oil tannage
A type of tannage, or process of tannage, in which the skin is first tanned with formaldehyde and is subsequently treated by the OIL TANNING process. Some CHAMOIS leathers are tanned by this method. (61)
combination press
A particular type of press, either manufactured commercially or homemade, frequently the latter, that serves more than one purpose, e.g., as a LYING PRESS that can be turned on its side and used as a NIPPING PRESS, or a press that serves as a STANDING PRESS, BACKING PRESS, or as a press for CASING-IN, having brass-edged boards built into both cheeks. (173, 231)
combination style
An old term used in America for a binding in which the forwarding was done as though for a hand-bound book, i.e., boards to be laced-in, followed by covering, but then having the cover (case) made separately. The case was then "hung on" the text block, the cloth joints were glued down and a lining paper was glued to the insides of the cover boards. (256)
combination tanned
A general term sometimes applied to a leather tanned by two or more tanning processes. Combination processes include CHROME TANNING followed by VEGETABLE TANNING, i.e., CHROME RETAN; vegetable tanning followed by chrome tanning, or SEMI-CHROME TANNAGE: tanning with formaldehyde followed by treatment with oil, or COMBINATION OIL TANNAGE. (61)
combined tannin in leather
Tannin that has combined so vigorously with the hide or skin protein that it cannot readily he removed by washing. (363)
combined water-soluble matter (in leather)
See textual note That material present in leather in a state of loose chemical combination with the hide protein and which can be removed from finely ground leather only by prolonged washing. (363)
comb marble
See: NONPAREIL MARBLE.
come away
The ability of a heated finishing tool to separate or "come away" cleanly during blind tooling without sticking to the dampened leather and thus damaging the grain surface. Rubbing the tool over the flesh side of a piece of scrap leather which has been rubbed with a mixture of white wac and lard (1.25 parts wax to 1.0 part lard) facilitates clean removal of a tool. (97)
commercial binding
A term understood to mean the binding of both short and long runs of identical books largely by machinery, i.e., edition binding, but not including blankbook binding, pamphlet binding, or padding, in distinction from the binding of single books of dissimilar nature, such as craft binding and library binding. (81, 115, 320)
common binding
An English term for a quality of binding that includes sewing on tapes by machine, cloth joints, a canvas or sheepskin spine lining, strawboards, and a covering of sheepskin or buckram.
common calf
common sheep
A very simple style of leather binding, often not headbanded or backed, and without pastedowns or lettering on the spine. They were produced for the inexpensive edition or retail trade, particularly during the 17th and 18th centuries. The vast majority of the 17th century bindings were in full leather, as were those of the first half of the 18th; thereafter they were also bound in half leather. (237)
common carrier
An individual or firm that undertakes to transport books to or from a bindery or library on a commercial basis, and who is responsible for losses as prescribed by law. The majority of the library binders today either own and operate their own vehicles or arrange for transportation on a NON-COMMINGLED contract basis.
common marble
A type of thrown marble, applied to leather covers, and consisting of black and brown streaks applied by throwing or sprinkling. The black is generally applied first. (97, 152)
common red
A red marbling color prepared from a mixture of Brazil wood, nut galls, and sal amoniac (ammonium chloride) boiled in water. (97)
commons
common color
An obsolete English term for a grade of book cloth intermediate in quality between the cheaper linens and more expensive extra cloths and buckram. Commons were dyed before receiving the final coat of color. The thready appearance noticeable on linen-finished cloth was less apparent on commons because of the dye and additional coating. (256, 276)
compensation guard
A thickness of linen or paper, usually the latter, bound into a volume to compensate for the thickness of folded maps, charts or other bulky material within the text block, or pocket material, so as to incorporate such material without distorting the shape of the book. They are sometimes made by binding in a full section of blank leaves placed ahead of the bulky material, and then cutting out all except a narrow portion after binding. The more common method, however, is to bind in folded strips of guard paper when the book is to be sewn through the folds, or strips of paper when the book is to be oversewn or otherwise sewn through the sides of the leaves. (102)
compensation pad
A pad of waste paper, slightly thicker than the difference in thickness from the spine to fore edge of a sewn book (the difference in thickness being the result of sewing swell). The pad makes the book the same thickness from spine to fore edge and overcomes the problem of distortion when the guillotine clamp is applied during trimming of the head and tail edges of the book. (276)
complementary color
One of a pair of colors usually considered to be in extreme contrast to each other. Red and green, yellow and violet, and blue and orange are pairs of complementary colors. The complementary of a primary color is produced by mixing the other two primary colors, e.g., green (which is a mixture of yellow and blue) is the complementary of red. (233)
composition leaf
See: DUTCH GOLD.
compressibility
The decrease in caliper of a sheet of paper, expressed as a percentage, resulting from an arbitrary specified increase in load. The conditions under which the determinations are made must be fully specified. Compressibility of paper is of considerable importance in both printing and bookbinding. See also: BUNDLING (1). (17)
concealed binding
A term sometimes used to indicate a MECHANICAL BINDING concealed within a wraparound cover. (54)
concealed joint
See: INVISIBLE JOINT.
concertina fold
See notes on the electronic edition A method of folding a sheet of paper, first to the right and then to the left, so that the sheet opens and closes in the manner of a concertina. Also called "accordion fold," or zig-zag fold. See also: ZIG-ZAG ENDPAPER. (58, 278)
concertina guard
See illustration A type of GUARD (1) used in conservation binding. It is made of good quality paper (generally Japanese copying paper) and is used so that the adhesive applied to the spine does not come into direct contact with the sections. The depth of each fold does not normally exceed 1/8 to 3/16 inch. The use of the concertina guard makes pulling of the book easier in the event that rebinding is necessary, and also reduces the possibility of damage to the folds of the sections. A forerunner of this technique consisted of loose individual guards around each section of vellum books. This type of guard is used only in the best conservation binding because it is difficult and time consuming (therefore expensive) to sew a book when using the concertina guard.
condensation
1. A chemical reaction in which two or more molecules, e.g., of an adhesive, combine upon the separation of water or some other simple substance. If a polymer is formed, the process is known as polycondensation. See also: POLYMERIZATION. 2. The process of changing from a vapor into a liquid, as when steam condenses into water.
conditioning
A term which has virtually the same meaning as SEASONING, but, unlike that term, is generally considered to refer to the exposure of paper to an accurately controlled and specified environment for the purpose of bringing the moisture content of the paper into equilibrium with the surrounding atmosphere. Standard atmospheric conditions in North America are considered to be 50% relative humidity and 73° F. In other countries the standard calls for a relative humidity of 65% (+2%) and a temperature of 68° F. +3° F.). Conditioning is of considerable importance for papers which must lie flat in sheet form, or which must give good register when printed. Unequal internal strains are set up when paper is dried on the papermaking machine, because the tension in the direction of the web travel. i.e., the MACHINE DIRECTION, produced by drying, is greater in the cross direction. See: ANISOTROPIC BEHAVIOR. Since most papers are dried to a moisture content of about 3% (by weight of the paper), they tend subsequently to absorb moisture until the moisture content amounts to approximately 5 to 9% (depending upon the humidity of the atmosphere in which they are stored). This tendency is increased once the paper is cut, because cut edges are able to absorb atmospheric moisture faster than the surface of the sheet itself, especially when the paper is stacked in piles. When a stack of paper absorbs moisture, the edges, particularly those corresponding to the cross direction, will expand more rapidly than the center, which causes cockling. In like manner, a "spongy" effect may occur, due to absorption of moisture by the top surface of the upper sheets in the pile. This expansion may take place between the printings of a multi-color printing sequence, or when the paper is dampened as in the offset-litho printing process, with the result that the colors used will overlap in some places and leave gaps in others. Moisture absorption, particularly when the grain direction of the paper does not run parallel to the spine of the book, can cause cockling along the binding edge and waviness in the leaves, resulting in a book that will not close properly. The latter problem can sometimes be overcome, at least to a degree, by pressing the book in an atmosphere of low relative humidity, but the problem of cockling along the binding edge can only be overcome by a method of IMPOSITION which results in the grain direction of the paper running parallel to the binding edge. (17, 42, 144, 156, 276)
conditioning time
The time interval between the removal of the adherends from the conditions of heat, pressure, or both, used in accomplishing bonding, and the attainment of approximately maximum bond strength. (309)
conjugate leaves
The leaves of a section which form one continuous piece of paper, i.e., leaves which are said to belong to one another. The form in which the sheet is imposed and folded determines which leaves are conjugate. In a sixteen-page section, for example, the first and sixteenth, second and fifteenth, etc., leaves will be conjugate. (69)
Conradus de Argentina
A 15th century German bookbinder, who produced bindings characterized by compartments adorned with well-designed stamps representing roses, fleur-de-lis, etc. Conrad also produced several of the ERFURT BINDINGS of that time. (94)
conservation
1. The conscious, deliberate and planned supervision, care and preservation of the total resources of a library, archives, or similar institution, from the injurious effect of age, use (or misuse), as well as external or internal influences of all types, but especially light, heat, humidity and atmospheric influences. 2. A field of knowledge concerned with the coordination and planning for the practical application of the techniques of binding, restoration, paper chemistry, and other material technology, as well as other knowledge pertinent to the preservation of archival resources. Cf. RESTORATION.
consistency
1. That property of a liquid adhesive that enables it to resist deformation. The property is not considered to be fundamental to adhesives; it is, however, manifest in the viscosity, plasticity, as well as other properties of the adhesive. See also: VISCOSITY COEFFICIENT. 2. The air-dry (or oven-dry) percentage by weight of fibrous material in a paper stock or suspension. (17, 98, 309)
contact bonding
An adhesive assembly process which utilizes adhesives that are dried to the condition where they display very little adhesive attraction to each other hut still possess considerable cohesive attraction and strength properties. When two surfaces, for example, are coated with an adhesive and allowed to dry to the point where they no longer display TACK. they can he conveniently handled; when the two surfaces are then joined, however. they immediately attract each other and cohere, instantly forming a strong bond. If the two surfaces are allowed to dry for too great a time, however, the ability to cohere is destroyed, unless the adhesive is dampened with a solvent and then allowed to dry once again to the stage of non-tackiness. This type of adhesive is used extensively in attaching plastic laminates to surfaces and is convenient to use in other applications where immediate bonding is important. Such contact adhesives are usually based on synthetic elastomers.
contemporary binding
1. A bookbinding produced immediately following the printing of the book; or, before 1700, a binding in the style of the decade or even the quarter century. 2. A new binding of an old book done in such a manner as to appear contemporaneous, to a greater or lesser degree, with the original binding, or one of the binding styles of the time when the book was published. Contemporary bindings of this type, while not creative or imaginative, are not unethical provided no attempt is made to disguise the fact that they are new bindings of older books. (373)
continuous guard
A type of guard to which the folios of blankbooks are frequently sewn, the purpose being to allow the hook to lie very flat when open. The folds of the guard, which are about 1/2 inch deep, are double the number of the folios of the book. Unlike the CONCERTINA GUARD, the folios (sections) do not fit into the folds of the guard, but rest against the edges of the folds of the guard, with the results that the opposite edges of the guard become the spine of the book, much in the manner of the REVERSED V-GUARD. The continuous guard is usually made of linen.
continuous trimmer
A trimming machine which does not have to be stopped and started for each cut, as is the usual case with the typical guillotine cutter. It has a revolving cutting bed equipped with four faces, each of which has its own clamp. When one clamp is filled with books, it closes and the bed makes a quarter revolution carrying the books under the fore-edge knife. While the fore edges are being trimmed, the operator fills the next clamp, the bed makes another quarter turn, and the heads and tails of the books in clamp one are trimmed at the same time the fore edges of the books in clamp two are being trimmed. Another quarter turn brings the hooks in clamp one over a conveyor where they are released. (339)
conventional foliage
A form of bookbinding ornamentation, usually structured by means of individual tools, which is generally unrealistic but still clearly suggestive of foliage. (156, 250)
convex covers
Book covers that are convex in shape because the book is thicker in the middle than at the spine and fore edge. Very old books sometimes had covers that were made convex intentionally, apparently in the belief that they could hold and support the leaves better by conforming to the shape of the text block. The text block was curved because the early printers produced books that were somewhat swollen in the middle, the swelling being due to the sheets being dampened before printing so as to obtain a better impression. This resulted in the fibers of the paper in the center part of the sheet being stretched and separated by the force of the type. The fibers did not return to their original conformation following printing, resulting in a slight additional thickness of the paper in the print area.
cool colors
Colors which are situated in the green-violet half of the color circle, i.e., colors in which blue is dominant. Bluish grays are referred to as cool colors. See also: WARM COLORS. (233)
copal
A resinous substance obtained from the exudations of living trees in areas of the tropics, or from fossils, rendered soluble in alcohol or other organic solvents, and used in the manufacture of printing inks and certain varnishes. In its dry form, it is also used in the manufacture of gilding powders. (156, 264)
copolymer
A complex polymer, resulting from the polymerizing together of two or more different monomers or monomer combinations. A copolymer is a true compound and often has properties distinct from those expected of a physical mixture of the separately polymerized component monomers. An example of an important copolymer used in archival work is the vinyl chloride-vinyl acetate copolymer.
copperas
See: FERROUS SULFATE.
copper naphthenate
A green cupric salt of naphthenic acid and copper, with the combined fungicidal properties of naphthenic acid and copper. It is practically non-volatile and is used in a 0.1% concentration to control the growth of molds and fungi. There is some risk involved in its use because its presence in paper increases the liability of the paper to damage in a polluted atmosphere, possibly due to the catalytic action of the copper with regard to sulfur dioxide, resulting in the formation of sulfuric acid. (198)
copper number
A number expressing the amount of copper reduced from the cupric to the cuprous state by a given amount of cellulosic material. It is useful as a measure of purity, particularly in relation to the strength and resistance to chemical degradation of paper and board. The copper number gives the degraded celluloses, and particularly those that result from bleaching. Although the copper number test is subject to reservations, it is generally agreed that a lower copper number enhances the chances of longevity of the paper. The test does not, however, apply to lignified fibers, and must be corrected for noncellulosic constituents. (72, 143)
Coptic bindings
Bindings produced by the Copts, or Egyptian Christians. The Coptic style of sewing is not unlike that of present-day machine edition sewing, in that it is also in the form of chain stitch linkings appearing as so many braids across the spine of the book. In addition, the covers of Coptic bindings were frequently sewn or laced to the text block by a number of hinging loops. Some Coptic bindings had wooden boards (from about the 4th century to the Middle Ages), but the majority had boards built up by layers of waste papyrus. They also had lined spines with flanges, as well as headbands. They were covered in leather as early as the 4th century and were tooled in blind, or by blind blocking. although decoration with inked and painted ornaments, as well as cut-out openwork backed with pieces of painted or gilded parchment were also used. Decoration consisting of openwork with parchment backing was executed before the leather (which was already cut to size) was attached. as was blind tooling or stamping when the fragile papyrus boards were employed. The tooling was in all likelihood done with unheated tools on moistened leather. Coptic bindings make up the oldest surviving "family" of leather bookbindings, and represent the ultimate source of all decorated leather bindings. (104, 158, 236, 347)
copy
1. A single example of a written or printed work. 2. One of the theoretically identical specimens of a work which together comprise an edition. impression, or issue. Different copies may also be printed on different qualities of paper. When printed in a different format, they constitute different editions, e.g., a paperback edition, and generally follow the original issue. 3. An imitation or reproduction of an original work. 4. To imitate or reproduce an original work by printing, or some other means. 5. Subject matter, either manuscript or printed, that is to be put into type or plates. 6. The material to be reproduced by photographic or other means, as well as the result of some process of reproduction. (12, 274)
cording
The process of inserting and tying string or cord on hanging cards, calendars, catalogs, and other items, the material being either pre-punched or pierced with an awl. Cording is done either by hand or on semi-automatic or automatic machines. (58, 82)
cord marker
An old term applied to the marks made across the spine of a gathered book to indicate the positions of the cords, tapes or bands on which the book was to be sewn, and, in the case of sewing on recessed cords, where the sawing-in was to be done. (256)
Cordoban leather
Originally, a "leather" that was basically alum-tawed hair sheepskin, usually of a naturally white color but also dyed red. It was first produced in Córdoba, Spain, by a combination of Arab and Spanish craftsmen following the Moorish invasion of the 8th century. Sometime during the 14th or 15th century the method of producing Cordoban changed from tawing to vegetable tannage. Within Spain the name for all these materials, including CORDOVAN LEATHER, was guadameci. The terms "Cordoban." "Cordovan," and "Spanish leather" have been used in England for centuries to denote indiscriminately several kinds of leather, some imported from Spain, others from France and Holland, as well as some actually produced in England and called "cordwain," which is probably a corruption of the French cordouan. (351)
Cordovan leather
A soft. fine-grained, colored leather produced mainly from the SHELL of a horse butt, but now also produced from goat- and pigskin. It is a vegetable tanned and curried leather. The name derives from Córdoba, Spain, where the leather was first produced. Cordovan is well known for its non-porosity, density, and good wearing characteristics. At one time it was used fairly extensively in bookbinding, particularly in Spain. See also: MUDÉJAR STYLE. (291, 363)
cords
The cotton, hemp, linen. or silk cords or bands, of varying thicknesses, which extend across the backs of the gathered sections and are used in sewing books through the folds. They are either sunk into saw cuts in the sections, as in RECESSED-CORD SEWING. or rest against the sections to form the raised cords or bands used in FLEXIBLE SEWING. See also: BANDS (1); TAPES; THONGS (2); WEBBING(S) (1). (198, 236)
cord sewing
See: FLEXIBLE SEWING; RECESSED-CORD SEWING.
corduroy
A durable, cut-pile fabric having vertical ribs, made of cotton or plain and twill weaves, and made in various weights and colors. Corduroy was used to some extent in the early part of the 20th century as a covering material for blankbooks and other large volumes. (264)
cordwain
An English term for CORDOBAN LEATHER, or CORDOVAN LEATHER.
corium
See: DERMIS.
cork back
An imitation leather having a reverse surface of ground cork, producing the appearance of the flesh side of a leather.
corner
corners
1. The juncture of the two edges of a book cover at the fore edge and head and tail. Types of corners include the LIBRARY CORNER, ROUND CORNER, and SQUARE CORNER. 2. The cloth, leather, or other material on the corners of half bindings. 3. A CORNERPIECE (2). 4. See: BOOK CORNERS.
cornered
cornering
The corners of boards that have been rounded, or the covering material which has been formed around the rounded corner. Boards are generally round-cornered on a cornering machine, or with a curved chisel. (58, 139, 259)
cornering machine
A foot- or power-operated machine used for cutting the round (or other shape) corners. of paper, cards, book boards, etc. The machine employs a curved chisel for this purpose. (264)
corner knife
A type of knife used for cutting leather at the corners of a book in the process of covering. (115)
corner mitering
See illustration The process or operation of accurately joining the edges of the covering material of a book that has been turned-in at the edges of the board. The purpose is to have a minimum of overlapping of cloth, or a pared overlapping of leather or vellum. Corner mitering has been altered considerably down through the history of bookbinding. One particular method, which was used well into the 16th century, involved cutting the leather so as to leave a tongue, with the cut- ting usually being done after the leather had been turned-in. In other methods, the leather was turned-in and then cut so that the vertical edges of the leather butted, or nearly so. An opposite technique was to cut the leather before turning it in, with the result that it overlapped a great deal more than is usual today, and left a small gap at the corners. This technique appears to have been in general use from the second half of the 16th century to the end of the 18th or early years of the 19th. Toward the end of this period the leather was pared thinner and the gap at the corner was considerably neater. During the last three-quarters of the 19th century the most common method of corner mitering of full leather bindings was to pare them diagonally and on a bevel before turning-in, so that the two edges overlapped to the extent of the bevel, coming together at an angle of 45° from the corner. (236)
cornerpiece
cornerstamp
1. A bookbinding finishing tool, usually ARABESQUE, designed to be used at the corners of a leather binding, usually for the purpose of matching a centerpiece or other form of decoration. 2. Metal corners attached to a binding to protect the corners of the covers from damage. Removable pasteboard cornerpieces are sometimes used to protect the corners of books during shipment. (156, 310)
corner pull test
A test similar to the PAGE PULL TEST, except that the leaf clamping device is limited to gripping only the upper or lower corner of the leaf. This test is designed to determine if a leaf will tear before it can be pulled from the binding, and is used mainly in testing the strength of adhesive bindings.
corners
See: BOOK CORNERS.
corner tool
A bookbinding finishing tool used to make corner designs on a binding. It can also be used to make the center design, four impressions of the same tool resulting in a center pattern. See also: CORNERPIECE (1). (97, 261)
corrected grain
A leather from which the surface of the grain has been partially removed by BUFFING (2) to a depth governed by the condition of the stock, and upon which a new surface has been built by means of various finishes. See also: BUFFED LEATHER. (61)
corrected white
See: DYED WHITE.
correct pattern
The contour of a hide flayed so as to permit the tanner to produce the maximum amount of good leather. It is a standard pattern adopted by packers and tanners. (363)
corrugations
Wrinkles across the middle of sheets of handmade paper, caused by the paper being wetted during printing and not drying evenly thereafter. The sheet is stretched in the printing area by the force of the press, resulting in uneven tension between the printed and unprinted areas. See also: CONVEX COVERS. (154)
Corvinus bindings
Bindings belonging to Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary (1458-1490) and famous as a patron of the arts. The magnificent library which he gathered together at the royal palace of Budapest contained manuscripts celebrated as the most marvelous masterpieces of Italian miniature painting of the Renaissance. They were executed by the greatest Florentine miniaturists of the day. These manuscripts, embellished with gold and colors on the inside, were adorned with equally superb bindings, many of which are in red velvet or morocco leather, decorated with gold tooling, inlays of leather of a different color. enamel, and cameos. Some were strongly reminiscent of Oriental motifs, while others were more Italian in character. Many manuscripts were also bound in brocade with bosses and clasps of silver. In 1526 the king's library, which was estimated at anywhere from 1,500 to 3,000 volumes, was sacked by the Turks. (347)
Cosway bindings
Leather bookbindings produced in the usual manner, except that they have miniature paintings inset into their covers. They are named after Richard Cosway (c 1742-1821), the English miniaturist. Cosway actually had nothing to do with the execution of these bindings, as they were not introduced until early in the 20th century. They were probably the invention of the firm of Henry Sotheran. booksellers, or their manager, J. Harrison Stonehouse. The books were bound by Robert Rivière, in good quality Levant morocco, with morocco joints, watered-silk linings, and the miniatures painted on ivory, glazed, and insetted in the covers. (236)
cottage style
cottage roof
A style of book decoration in which the top and bottom of a center rectangular panel slope away from a broken center, producing a kind of gabled effect. The spaces are filled in, at times, with French sprays and branches in combination with lacework, and sometimes with the same small tools used in the fan ornament. Although this style of decoration may have originated in France, perhaps as early as 1630, it is most characteristic of English binding of the late 17th century (c 1660) to about 1710. The style was still being used on pocket almanacs and devotional hooks as late as, or even later than, 1822. (124, 158, 172, 281)
cotton
A soft, fibrous, usually white organic substance that clothes the seeds of various plants, especially of the genus Gossypium. The cotton fiber resembles a flat, twisted tube. having a thin wall and a wide central canal. known as the lumen. Because of this wide lumen, the cylindrical fiber collapses upon drying to the form of a flat, twisted tube, somewhat in the shape of a corkscrew. The fiber length may be as much as 30 mm. and the width between approximately 0.01 and 0.03 mm., giving a ratio of length to width of more than 1,000 to 1. Cotton consists of more than 90% cellulose, exclusive of COTTON LINTERS. Since it is almost pure cellulose, cotton fibers are readily affected by acids and moderately strong oxidizing agents. Alkali compounds in moderate amounts and at normal temperatures, however, have little effect on them. Cotton is used extensively in the manufacture of sewing thread, spine lining cloth, book cloth (including buckram), as well as higher grade papers and other products used in archival work. (143, 198)
cotton bating
A soft, fluffy cotton fiber, having a sized surface to hold the fibers together, and used as a padding medium for album covers, gold cushions, etc. (256)
cotton content
See: COTTON FIBER CONTENT PAPER.
cotton drill
See: DRILL (1).
cotton fiber content paper
Papers which are made from cellulose fibers derived from COTTON LINTERS, cotton or linen cuttings, and lint cotton. Flax is also sometimes included in this definition. Also called "rag content paper" and "cotton content paper." (17, 93)
cotton linters
The fine, silky fibers which remain adhered to the seeds of the cotton plant after ginning, including parts of the longer textile fibers, or "lint," as well as coarse, short fuzz fibers in most upland species of the plant. When purified, linters are used in the manufacture of paper. They can be used to replace from 5 to 35% of the rag content of fine papers with little or no loss of strength. Linters improve uniformity and the color properties of paper, and also provide a cleaner, bulkier sheet. Although linters do find use in papermaking, their principal use is as a raw material in the manufacture of cellulose derivatives. (17, 42, 72)
cotton parchment
A parchmentlike material produced by soaking cotton fibers in a solution of sulfuric acid and then rolling the fibers into sheets. See also: IMITATION PARCHMENT. (197)
cotton thread
See: SEWING THREAD.
cotton wool
A raw cotton wadding, usually referred to as absorbent cotton, and used as an applicator for stains, 3 dyes, and other bindery operations. (237, 335)
couch
1. The operation of transferring or laying sheets of handmade paper from the mold to the felts for pressing. 2. To press the newly made sheets of paper on the felts. 3. To press a sheet on the wire of a cylinder papermaking machine and transfer it onto the felt for pressing and drying. 4. To press water from a sheet on a couch roll of a FOURDRINIER MACHINE, or extra water by means of a suction couch preparatory to transferring it to a felt. (140, 197)
coucher
1. An obsolete term for a large book meant to rest on a table or stand, especially a cartulary, register, or antiphonary. 2. The workman who lifts the newly formed sheets of handmade paper from the mold in which they are formed, and transfers them to the couch board on which he builds up a POST (1). (140)
couching
1. See: COUCH. 2. A method of embroidering a binding consisting of gold threads laid on the surface of the cloth and held down by threads of bright red silk coming from the back of the material. Ancient methods of couching were numerous, with zig-zags, wave patterns, and all manners of diapers being produced by the position and arrangement of the stitches that controlled the gold thread. (115)
couch roll
A roll or cylinder on a papermaking machine the purpose of which is to press, i.e., de-water, or COUCH (4) the newly formed web of paper from the wire, and to transfer the web to the wet press for further de-watering. Couch rolls are of two basic types: the suction couch roll and the pressure couch roll. The suction couch roll is a heavy metal shell drilled with numerous small holes through which a high vacuum exists for the rapid removal of water from the web as it travels over the roll. The pressure couch roll consists of two rolls which apply pressure to the web to remove water. (17)
counter
1. An automatic device for recording the output or activity of a machine or device. 2. The bed or base of a blocking press. 3. The interior white area of a type letter.
counterbalance
A device on a board cutter, or similar device, consisting of a bar or rod with a weight or weights that are adjustable so that they can increase or decrease the counterbalancing effect on the blade. The rod or bar is an extension of the knife, and, by the action of gravity, works to prevent the knife from dropping and also assists in raising the knife following the cut. Although originally intended to enhance the usability of the blade, the counterbalance today is considered to be more of a safety device than a functional part of the cutting operation. (145)
counterchange
A decorative binding motif consisting of a cover broken into divisions in which there is a reversal of dark and light shading. If the cover is divided in half vertically, the left half of the background may be of a dark shade, and the right a light shade, while the panel in the center, also divided vertically, would have a light left and a dark right side. (94, 183)
countermark
A smaller and subsidiary WATERMARK found in antique papers, usually in the opposite half of the sheet to the watermark. It usually consists of the name or initial of the papermaker, the date, and the place of manufacture, although small devices such as a small post-horn or cabalistic signs have been used. The countermark was introduced in the 17th century. (69, 156)
countersunk
1. A bookbinding having a panel sunk or depressed below the surface of the covering material, and designed to take an inlay, label, or the like. 2. A type of WATERMARK produced by pressing down the woven cover or face of either a mold or dandy roll. Also called "intaglio" (2). (12,156)
cover
1. The outer covering of a book placed on a text block to protect it both in use and storage, and, in many cases, to serve as a medium of decoration. A cover may be limp, e.g., a LIMP BINDING, which has no boards and the covering (usually vellum) is turned-in on itself and covered with the board papers; semi-limp (or semi-flexible), in which the boards are thin and flexible and are covered with leather or cloth and drummed on. See: DRUMMING ON. 2. A SELF-COVER, as of a pamphlet; or a stiff cover, e.g., more or less rigid boards covered with leather, vellum, cloth, paper, or combination thereof. Stiff covers are usually glued down all over, turned in and covered with board papers. In edition and library binding, the term CASE (1) is more appropriate. 3. The outside leaf of a periodical issue. (131, 236, 256)
cover boards
An obsolete term applied to two thicknesses of board glued together to give greater thickness (and strength) to the boards used for large blankbooks. See also: SPLIT BOARDS.
covering
1. The material, such as leather, vellum, cloth, paper, or combinations thereof, which cover the spine and usually the sides of a book. 2. The process of pasting or gluing the cloth, leather, etc., to a book. drawing it over the spine and boards, and turning it over the edges of the boards at the fore edge, head, and tail of the book. (161, 172)
covering folder
A FOLDER (1) of bone, ivory, or wood, shaped generally like an ordinary folder, except for a slight arc cut from one edge, leaving a more tapered end with a narrow rounded tip. (115)
cover papers
A class of papers used for the covers of pamphlets (other than self-covers), catalogs, brochures, or any other stitched publication, to provide protection during handling and (sometimes) to enhance appearance. They are made in white and a wide range of colors. The majority have plain edges; however, they are also available with deckle edges. Cover papers generally have good folding characteristics, and have rough finishes or are embossed with fancy designs. They are usually produced from chemical wood pulps, sometimes in mixtures with mechanical wood pulp, and, although many are made from pulps containing varying amounts of cotton fiber pulps, they have but little permanence. Various coated papers, including plain, heavy, plastic-coated, cast-coated, metallic, and cloth-lined papers are also used. Common basis weights of uncoated cover papers are 50, 65, 80, and 2/65 pounds (20 X 26 - 500), while weights of coated papers are 60, 80, and 100 pounds (20 X 26 - 500). Aside from folding endurance, desired characteristics include dimensional stability, uniformity of printing surface, and durability. (17, 86, 139, 234)
covers bound in
1. A term used to indicate that the original covers of a book are used in the rebinding of the book. It may include the entire covers (including the spine), the boards and their covering only, or simply the covering of the boards. Sometimes this is called "rebuilding old corners." 2. The paper covers of a periodical issue, pamphlet, booklet, etc., included in the original binding because of their bibliographical or illustrative content. In this sense, the term applies mainly to library binding. (12, 156, 261)
cover title
1. The title blocked on the original covers of a book or pamphlet, or a publisher's binding, as distinguished from the title blocked on the spine of a book by a bookbinder. Cf: BINDER'S TITLE 2. In terms of collation, a cover title is one printed on the paper cover of a work issued without a title page. The paper is usually, although not necessarily, of a different stock and color than that used for the text. See also: SELF-COVER. (140)
cover turned-in
cloth turned-in
The covering material of a book that is turned over the edges and onto the inside surfaces of the boards, the (uneven) edges of which are covered by the PASTEDOWN. Although the term is generally applied to edition and library bindings, books bound by hand are also usually turned-in. In library binding the customary turn-in is 5/8 inch, while in edition binding it is seldom more than 1/2 inch, and frequently less. (58, 209)
cowhide
In a strict sense. a leather made from the unsplit hide or the grain split of the hide of a cow; however, the term is sometimes used to indicate leather made from the hide of any bovine animal. The term is not apPlied to leather made from the flesh split of a cow or any other bovine animal. Cowhide has a slight grain or corrugation, and is a tough and strong leather. takes gold tooling well. and, when properly Prepared, wears well. In addition. if it is of the best quality (and handled frequently), it is usually very durable. Cowhide is not often used for covering books, except possibly very large volumes, such as blankbooks. Even the usual grain split is far too thick for the usual book, and, if pared to a thickness suitable for such a book, it loses a considerable part of its strength. See also: AMERICAN RUSSIA; IMITATION RUSSIA; RUSSIA LEATHER. (102, 129, 164, 343, 363)
c-pattern
The code name for a pattern in a book cloth formed by covering the surface of the cloth with small raised dots. Also called "crêpe." (256)
cracking
1. A defect in a coated paper caused by the formation of fissures in the coating layer which th_en lifts from the base paper during printing, folding, or some other converting operation. Cracking is a bothersome and frequently encountered defect in art papers. 2. Fissures in the crease of a sheet of Paper when it is folded or scored. (17)
craft bookbinding
A general term used since the 1890s to indicate the binding of individual books for specific customers. Such work included rebinding. the restoration and/or rebinding of rare books, and (sometimes) the restoration of works of art on paper. See also: EXTRA BINDING. (140)
crash
1. A course, open weave, starched cotton material, sometimes napped on one side, and used in edition binding for lining the spines of books. It is not used in library and hand binding because it ais too lightweight and flimsy. See also: SPINE LINING FABRIC. 2. A cloth pattern peculiar to the buckram grades of book cloth. of a coarse, pebbled effect. (131, 173)
crayon-resist papers
Endpapers and other decorative papers produced by rubbing the paper with crayon over some roughened surface, and then covering the rubbings with a water color wash. The wash does not adhere to the areas that are waxed. (183)
crazing
1. Fine cracks in an adhesive which may extend in a network on or under the surface or through a layer. It is caused by excessive shrinkage characteristics of the adhesive film, too rapid drying of the adhesive, or by flexing of a brittle adhesive. 2. The process by which yellow or transparent parchments often become whiter and more opaque when folded, producing irregular and disfiguring effects at the joints of vellum bindings. (291, 309)
cream split
A leather produced from a split sheepskin that is heavily glazed.
creasability
The ability of a sheet of paper or board to be folded without any cracks appearing in the area where the crease occurs. Creasability differs from BRITTLENESS, as the latter property involves a small degree of bending and is generally a manifestation of chemical changes within the paper. (17)
crease
1. The impression made on a cover by the use of a heated finishing tool, of single or double blind lines. In full leather bindings, they are usually placed near the edges of the covers, while on half-or three-quarter bindings they are usually at the intersection of the leather spine and corners and the cloth or paper sides. 2. To make the band impressions distinct on the spine of a book. 3. The wrinkle, fold, or crimp in paper caused by folding. 4. See: SCORE. (42, 204)
creaser
1. See: FOLDER (1). 2. A curved finishing tool having lines cut on its face, and used to impress an ornamental blind line or lines on a leather binding. 3. A machine used in edition and library binding for creasing the endpapers even with the back edge of the text block and sealing them down by means of heat. For this purpose, the cloth joint of the endpaper is coated with a heat-sealing adhesive. 4. A device employed in some folding machines for creasing coated papers. (94, 264, 322)
crease retention
The ability of a paper, e.g., a GUARD, to remain folded after being creased mechanically. The term assumes that no adhesive is used. Crease retention and CREASABILITY are not the same. (17)
creasing strength
That characteristic of a sheet of paper or board which causes it to retain its tensile strength after it is folded or creased. Creasing strength is of particular importance in the papers used for endpapers. (17)
creep
A change in the dimensions of a material which takes place with time when the material is under constant load, following the initial "instantaneous" elastic rapid deformation. Creep at room temperature is sometimes called "cold flow." (42, 309)
crêpe
See: C-PATTERN.
crêpeline
See: SILK GAUZE.
cresting roll
A type of finishing tool, consisting of a ROLL (1) having two undulating and intersecting lines below and a series of tufts above. See also: HERALDIC CRESTING. (250)
crimping
The process of applying a series of fine creases or bender marks to the hinges of leaves of loose-leaf books, the purpose of which is to enable the leaves to be turned over easily and to lie flat. The lines of the creasing prevent undue bulking at the area of crimping. A sufficient series of creases closely spaced imparts a rolling effect ensuring a flexibility that is difficult to obtain by any other means. Cf: SCORE. (264, 316)
crinoline
A stiffened, open weave fabric, generally made of cotton, and sometimes used in edition binding as a substitute for CRASH (1) in lining the spines of books. (81, 196)
crocketed cresting
A binding decoration consisting of rectangular stamps ornamented with crockets, which are small curved designs, or with (roughly) triangular stamps, which, when placed together pointing outwards, present a cresting effect. (250)
crocking
The removal of a dye or pigment from the surface of paper, the coloring or finishing materials from the surface of leather, or the transfer of coloring matter from the surface of one cloth to another by the action of rubbing. (341)
crocodile leather
See: ALLIGATOR LEATHER
cropped
1. A book that has had too much of its margins trimmed, especially at the head edge, although not so much that the leaves are BLED. 2 A book that has had its edges cut beyond the shortest, or PROOF (1) leaf. 3. A photograph of which part of the top, bottom or sides is omitted during reproduction, in order to focus attention on a central theme, to bring it into proper proportions for the space it must occupy, or to bleed it deliberately. (156, 234, 365)
cross direction
The direction of a machine-made paper, which is at right angles to the MACHINE DIRECTION, i.e., the direction across the direction in which the web travels. The cross direction of paper generally has less strength and folding endurance than the machine direction, although, in some papers, after aging, the opposite may be true. The cross direction has greater tearing resistance, and paper also expands more in the cross than in the machine direction when the moisture content of the paper increases. See also: AGAINST THE GRAIN; ANISOTROPIC BEHAVIOR.
cross laminated
A board or other laminate having one or more layers oriented at right angles to other layers with respect to the grain direction of the layers. Alternating grain directions of the lami